英语语法与写作基础.doc

英语语法基础一、词性1. 名词(noun n.)：表示人或物的名称，man, teacher, book, music, time等。另有专有名词如Tom, New York, Wall Street, ATM等。动名词也是名词，由动词+ing构成，表示某种行为，如：swimming, playing basketball, being short等。在英语中，名词可做句子的主语、宾语、表语、定语、补足语、同位语。如：I love studying English in my leisure / spare / free time. （主语、宾语）Being short is not a disadvantage. （主语、表语）The railway bridge is to be reconstructed next month. （定语）We made him monitor. （宾语补足语）We Chinese people mean what we say. （同位语）2. 各种代词(pronoun pron.)指代人或物，如人称代词he, she, us, them, 指示代词this, that, these, 不定代词some, any, someone, something, all, each，疑问代词what, which等。代词类似于名词，在英语中通常做主语、宾语，少数可以做表语、同位语、定语。What has happened to him? （主语、宾语）This is my book. Yours is over there. （定语、主语）They each / all got a birthday present. （同位语。 当然，还有主语they也是代词。）注意：反身代词只能作宾语、表语、同位语，绝对不能做主语! 例如：He himself is to blame for the mistake. （同位语）He isnt himself / doesnt look / feel / seem himself today. （表语）He slipped, but didnt hurt himself. （宾语）3. 形容词 (adjective adj./a.)形容词的主要功能就是作定语、表语、补足语。如：He is said to be a handsome boy. （定语）He is tall, handsome, and above all, very intelligent. （表语）He fell down to the ground, dead. （主语补足语）4. 副词 (adverbial adv./ad.)副词通常做状语，修饰动词、形容词、另外一个副词、整个句子。He plays the piano well / very well. （修饰动词短语plays the piano， very又修饰副词well）She is very / really / pretty beautiful. （修饰形容词beautiful）Surprisingly, he passed the exam at first attempt. （修饰整个句子）注意一词多义、一词多性现象：She was very ill and was rushed to hospital immediately. （形容词，“生病的”，句中作表语）ill effects / discipline / temper / humor（形容词，“不好的；糟糕的；有害的”，只能作前置定语）ill-equipped / ill-treat / speak ill of sb （副词，“坏地；糟糕地”，做状语）a cure for all the nations ills （名词，“问题；困难”，作宾语。）The book is very good and worth reading a second time. （程度副词，“非常地”，做状语。）He is the very man for the job. （形容词，“恰恰是；正是”等表示强调的意思，只能做前置定语。）He played the instrument so well that he won first prize. （副词，“好地”）Hell get well soon. （形容词，“身体好的；健康的”，只能作表语。）We used to get our water from a well. （名词，“井；水井；油井；气井）With tears welling in his eyes, she went away. （动词，“（液体）流出；涌出”）5. 介词 (preposition prep.)英语中的介词不能单独使用，通常跟后面的宾语构成介词短语，一起做句子的状语、定语、表语、补足语。Ill put my name on the back of the envelope. （地点状语）She didnt remember the name on the back of the envelope. （后置定语）He was on holiday at the time. （表语、时间状语）He left his keys in the dormitory. （宾语补足语）6. 连词 (conjunction conj.)英语中的连词有并列连词和从属连词两种，分别引导并列句和从句。并列连词主要有and, but, or, so, for；从属连词引导从句，按功能分有引导状语从句的because, since, as, although, so that等，引导定语从句的that, which, who, whose, when, where等，还有引导名词性从句的that, who, which, whether, where等。We are making good progress, but we still have a long way to go. （引导并列句，表示转折）Before I could think of a reply, she went away. （引导时间状语从句）Since everybody is here, lets begin. （引导原因状语从句）Who is the man that is sitting at the back? （引导定语从句）This is the hospital where / in which she was born. （引导定语从句）That no one remembered her birthday left Maria very depressed. （引导名词性从句的主语从句）Im delighted that we achieved what we set out to do. （两个从句，分别有由that和what引导，都是名词性从句的宾语从句）The question is whether we can get in touch with him. （引导名词性从句的表语从句）7. 动词 (verb v.)动词在英语中最复杂，有很多种分类：1）及物动词与不及物动词2）动作动词（行为动词）与状态动词（静态动词，含系动词、结果动词）3）实义动词与助动词（含情态助动词）4）持续动词与瞬间动词5）谓语动词与非谓语动词关于动词用法下面还有论述，请参照下文。二、英语的句子成分小结1. 主语：由名词、代词、动名词、动词不定式、主语从句充当I was / They were young and energetic. Who / What makes him so upset? To learn / Learning English is easy.Who will go there / Whether or not the meeting will be held is not decided yet.2. 谓语：由谓语动词来充当，有时态和语态（主动语态与被动语态）变化Spending money is fun. He didnt go with us for lack of money. I have been working for hours and is in need of a rest. The car must have been stolen.3. 宾语：由名词、代词、动名词、宾语从句充当I want to go home right now. I appreciate your help / your helping me. He didnt say why / when he was leaving.4. 定语：由形容词、动词不定式、现在分词、过去分词、动名词、介词短语、定语从句充当，分前置定语和后置定语两种。The small boy (sitting / seated) under the tree is Tom. The boy (who is seated / sitting) under the tree is Tom.5. 补足语：由名词、形容词、动词不定式、现在分词、过去分词、介词短语充当，有宾语补足语和主语补足语两种）The news made me happy / on top of the world. He was elected / made monitor. He wanted the work to be done by Friday. Wherever you go, you see KFC advertised.He was caught smoking in the workshop and was fired immediately.6. 状语：由副词、介词短语、动词不定式、现在分词、过去分词、状语从句充当。英语中状语的种类繁多，常见的有时间状语、地点状语、方式状语、原因状语、伴随状语、目的状语等。He remained seated there / throughout the party. He jumped with joy when he heard the news. To learn English well, you should read widely. Dressed in / Wearing a scarf, she looks younger.7. 表语（系动词be和半系动词之后）：由名词、形容词、反身代词、现在分词、过去分词、介词短语充当He is like his father / a student / handsome. The chicken smells / tastes good. He looks worried / like his father. The story sounds interesting. Something must have gone wrong.8. 同位语英语中，只有主语和宾语才可能有同位语，由名词、少数代词和同位语从句充当He praised us all in class. （宾语us的同位语）They all / each got a reward. （主语they的同位语）I saw the president himself. （宾语the president的同位语）We were all surprised at the news that he had resigned. （主语we的同位语；宾语the news的同位语从句）三、助动词小结助动词主要是帮助谓语动词改变形式，如否定式、疑问式、进行式、完成式、被动式、强调式等。1助动词has, have, had（后接过去分词，构成谓语动词的完成时，用于肯定句、否定句、疑问句）I have finished all my homework. / Have you finished your homework? - No, I havent.She has gone to Shanghai to study Chinese literature.The train had already left when she arrived at the station.2助动词is, am, are, was, were, has been, have been, had been, will bea) 后接动词的-ing形式，构成谓语动词的进行式What are you doing now? - Im watching TV at home.Two boys were playing football nearby when the accident happened.I have been teaching English for more than 20 years and I know how to solve the problem.She is not working in Beijing now; she has gone to Shenzhen to seek her fortune.We will be flying over the Atlantic Ocean this time tomorrow.b) 后接过去分词，构成谓语动词的被动语态She was awarded the Nobel Prize twice in 5 years.When he returned he found his house had been broken into and a lot of things (had been) stolen.The suspension bridge will be completed next month.I cant lend you my bike because it is being repaired now.3助动词do, does, dida) 后接动词原形，构成谓语动词的否定式、疑问式We dont go to school on Sunday. Do you?She doesnt work here any longer; she has moved to Shanghai.Did you go to the cinema with her last night? - No, I didnt.b) 后接动词原形，构成谓语动词的强调式，常译成“确实；的确；务必”，仅用于肯定句I did return the money to you.She does work in this school but she is now in Shanghai on business.I do believe that he is the best man for the job.Do be careful next time.4情态助动词can/could, may/might, must, should, will/would, shall, need, ought等。情态助动词与上述助动词在用法唯一不同的是，情态助动词有特定的意义，表达说话人某种特定的感情，所以叫情态助动词。Youve been working for a few hours. You must be tired.Hurry up! They must be waiting for us.I didnt hear the phone. I must have been asleep.You neednt come if you dont want to.You neednt have hurried. There was plenty of time left.There is a knock on the door. Who can it be?I cant find my umbrella. Who can have taken it?What shall we do now?You should not have left her alone at home last night.四、非谓语动词小结（动词不定式、现在分词、过去分词、动名词）1动词不定式（带to）、现在分词、过去分词都可以作状语，但动词不定式（带to）只能作目的状语和结果状语，其他的状语（一般为时间状语、原因状语、条件状语和伴随状语）用分词，其中，现在分词表示主动、过去分词表示被动。To learn English well, you should read widely. （动词不定式作目的状语）With this, he left, never to return. （动词不定式作结果状语）Hearing the news, he was wild with joy. （现在分词作时间状语，跟主语是主动关系）He came running towards his mother. （现在分词作伴随状语，跟主语是主动关系）She came, accompanied by her mother. （过去分词作伴随状语，跟主语是被动关系。）（注：动词不定式、现在分词、过去分词作状语，其逻辑主语必须是主句的主语。）2动词不定式（带to）、现在分词、过去分词都可以作定语，其中，动词不定式表示将来的行为，现在分词表示主动和正在进行，过去分词表示被动和已经发生。）The bridge to be built next year will join Zhuhai, Macao and Hong Kong. （动词不定式作定语）The boy wearing glasses is my next-door neighbor. （现在分词作定语）The stolen car was discovered near a river. （过去分词作定语）需要注意的是，某些特殊结构后面只能用动词不定式作定语，它们是：序数词、only、动作性名词，如refusal, attempt, effort, willingness, pressure等。此时则不用考虑时间概念。He is always the first to come and the last to leave.He is the only teacher to understand me.I appreciate your offer to take me to the airport.另外还有一种结构being + 过去分词作定语，表示一个正在进行的被动行为：The matter being discussed is very important.The bridge being built was designed by a world-famous designer.（注：动词不定式、现在分词、过去分词作定语，其逻辑主语必须其修饰的那个名词；动词不定式有主动和被动之分。）3动词不定式、现在分词、过去分词都可以作宾语补足语，有以下3种情况：a）动词不定式带to，跟在某些动词后，构成固定结构，如：ask / tell / order / persuade / allow / forbid sb to do，其否定式是not to do。变为被动结构时，宾语补足语相应变为祝语补足语。此种用法仅限于动词不定式。I persuaded him not to go there alone.We are not allowed to smoke at school.The novel is believed / is reported / is said to have been translated into Chinese.b）动词不定式（不带to）、现在分词、过去分词跟在感官动词see, hear, notice, observe后作宾语补足语，构成固定结构，其中，动词不定式表示动作的全过程，现在分词表示主动和正在进行，过去分词表示被动和已经发生。I noticed him enter the school gate.They saw him walking towards the school.She was frightened to see the old man knocked down by a car.变为被动结构时，动词不定式要加to，现在分词和过去分词不变，同时宾语补足语变为主语补足语。He was noticed to enter the school gate.They were never heard to have a quarrel.A woman with two children was seen begging in the square.c）动词不定式（不带to）、现在分词、过去分词跟在使役动词let, make, have后作宾语补足语，构成固定结构，其中，动词不定式表示动作的全过程，现在分词表示持续的行为，过去分词表示被动和已经发生。The teacher had me rewrite my composition.She made me wash the car for a week.Id like to have this package weighed, please.He soon had us all laughing at his jokes.（注：从词义上来说，let sb do = allow sb to do，have sb do = ask sb to do，而make sb do = force sb to do，其被动式be made to do （动词不定式要加to）= have to do：He was made to wash the car for a week.）4动名词作主语、宾语、表语、定语（动名词，顾名思义是一个名词，虽然它是由动词+ing构成，但它不再是一个具体的动作，而是指一件事。另一方面，动名词可以加宾语或状语，也有否定式、被动式和完成式，仍然保留了一些动词的用法。）Walking is a good form of exercise. （主语）One of his hobbies is collecting antique coins. （表语）Im considering immigrating to Canada. （动词宾语）He made an apology to me for not having been able to help. （介词宾语）There was much opposition to pulling down the school and building a refuse collection point. （介词宾语，两个并列）Building materials often emit (= give off) volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) into the air. （定语）注意：a）带to的动词不定式也可以作主语，但与动名词表示一件事不同，动词不定式是一个动作，而且是一个尚未发生的动作。To learn a foreign language well is not easy.To start a sentence with an infinitive sounds awkward as if one is giving a formal speech.动词不定式作主语通常会用it作形式主语：It is not easy to learn a foreign language well.It is important to give her all the help available.但无论哪种形式作主语，在并列结构中，前后的形式必须一致：Buying a new TV is as cheap as repairing the old one.It is as cheap to buy a new TV as it is to repair the old one.Starting a sentence with an infinitive is not as common as using a gerund.b）动名词和现在分词都可以作定语，但现在分词是一个正在进行的行为：a sleeping bag （动名词）/ the sleeping baby （现在分词）a swimming-pool （动名词） / the boy swimming in the pool （现在分词）关于非谓语动词还有几点说明：1非谓语动词作定语相当于一个定语从句，作状语相当于一个状语从句（但作伴随状语时相当于一个并列句），两者基本上可以互换。The boy (who is) swimming in the pool is my half brother.The car (which was) stolen last week has been found by the police.Looking from the top of the hill, we could overlook the whole city.= When we looked from the top of the hill, we could overlook the whole city.Looked at from this angle, the situation doesnt seem too disappointing.= If it is looked at from this angle, the situation doesnt seem too disappointing.Not having received a reply, I wrote again.= Because I didnt receive / hadnt received a reply, I wrote again.They came in, singing and dancing.= They came in and they were singing and dancing.2非谓语动词都有一般式和完成式，动词不定式还有进行式，其中，一般式表示该行为与谓语动词同时发生，或在谓语动词之后发生，而完成式表示该行为在谓语动词之前发生，进行式当然表示动作正在进行。He is said to live / to be living in Canada.He is said to have gone to Canada.He sat at a table by the window, gazing into space.Having finished all my homework, I went to the cinema.I dream of going to Beijing University to study.Not having been trained as a nurse is his one regret.3除了作定语和补足语，其他情况下的非谓语动词的逻辑主语通常就是主句的主语：To become a college teacher, you must at least have a masters degree.Looking out of the window, I saw a man running after a car.Inspired by his good deeds, I determined to do more volunteer work.Do you mind closing the door?非谓语动词作定语时，其逻辑主语是它所修饰的那个名词，作补足语时，则是它前面的那个名词：The sleeping baby looks so cute.The baby sleeping in the cradle looks so cute.The first newspaper to be printed in English came out over 100 years ago.Life is very difficult for those laid-off workers.Convinced / Believing that he didnt take the money, I let him go.His words set me thinking.A phone call sent him hurrying to the hospital.She left the baby crying / left the car unlocked.（最后三句中的set/send/leave sb doing属于固定用法，表示“让某人做某事；使处于状态，后接形容词、现在分词或过去分词）4现在分词、过去分词作状语时，其逻辑主语也可以是另外的名词，而不是主句的主语，通常是在分词前加上该名词，构成名词 + 分词结构，叫做独立主格结构。试比较：An old man walked past, followed by a dog. （分词的逻辑主语是主句的主语）An old man walked past, a dog following him. （独立主格结构）Having lost the key, I couldnt enter my office. （分词的逻辑主语是主句的主语）The key lost, I couldnt enter my office. （独立主格结构）Having been damaged by the heavy rain, the bridge was no longer safe. （分词的逻辑主语是主句的主语）All the flights having been cancelled because of the heavy rain, we had to wait. （独立主格结构）5动名词作主语、宾语、表语时也可以另带逻辑主语。试比较：Do you mind turning down the air conditioner a little? （动名词的逻辑主语是主句的主语）Do you mind my / me smoking? （动名词的逻辑主语是me）Imagine living alone on a lonely island for a few years. （动名词的逻辑主语是主句的主语）I cant imagine Tom / Toms cooking dinner. （动名词的逻辑主语是Tom）He is used to living in such cold weather. （动名词的逻辑主语是主句的主语）He is used to his students / his students being late. （动名词的逻辑主语是his students）动名词另带主语时，可在动名词前加名词、宾格代词或物主形容词，但作主语的动名词，要加逻辑主语就只能用物主形容词。比较：We were very happy at Tom / Toms / him / his coming to visit.Toms / His coming to visit made us very happy.6动词不定式的逻辑主语有以下三种：a) 是主句的主语，如：I want to go home. / To find more information, visit .b) 是前面的名词，如：He told me to stay. / Permit me to introduce the guests to you.c) 由for sb / of sb构成，如：Its easy for me to make a cake. / Its kind of you to say so.In order for you to hear clearly, I will speak slowly and carefully.（of结构仅用于描述人的句式中，即前面有描述人的品性的词，如kind, wise, silly等。）五、英语句子小结英语句子主要有简单句、并列句、主从复合句三大类。简单句又可分为肯定句、否定句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句等。从语气上来说，英语句子有陈述语气（陈述句，用于陈述一个事实）、祈使语气（祈使句，用于表达命令和要求）、虚拟语气（用来表示一个与事实相反的假设）三种。1. 简单句（一个句子）：主谓宾定补状6部分组成，最小是主谓结构，如：He left (early).The teacher said something. 主谓（注意时态和语态）宾The shy teacher said something. （shy是形容词，作定语，修饰名词）The shy teacher said something quietly / in a low voice. （quietly是副词，in a low voice是介词短语，都作方式状语）The shy teacher said something quietly in the classroom yesterday. （in the classroom是介词短语，作地点状语，yesterday是时间副词，做时间状语）The teacher asked me to write / The teacher made me write the composition again.(to write和write都是动词不定式短语作宾语补足语。不带to的动词不定式只跟在感官动词如see, hear, notice, observe和使役动词make, let, have后。)英语中也有一种无主语的句子，就是祈使句：Sit down please. / Please be seated. / Take a seat. 请坐。（肯定句）Dont leave me alone. / Dont be late again. （否定句，也可加主语：Dont you be late again. ）2. 并列句和主从复合句（主句 + 并列句/从句）英语中，两个和两个以上的句子必须是一个主句 + 一个或以上的并列句/从句。并列句和从句的标志就是前面都必须有引导词或连接词。1) 主句 + 并列句（由并列连接词and, but, or, so引导）The teacher said something and (he) left the classroom. （后一句是并列句）Hurry up, or well be late. （第一句是主句，没有引导词 - 是一个祈使句，即无主句）He is world-famous but he is very modest. （第一句是主句，第二句是并列句，有并列连接词but引导。）注意：英语中有一种连接副词常被中国学生误用为并列连接词，常见的有however, therefore, furthermore, consequently, as a result, otherwise等。主要原因是这些副词在意思上分别相当于but, so和or，而位置也正好在两句之间：He is not rich, however, he is honest. | He got up late, therefore, he didnt catch the early bus.这样的句子当然是错误的。连接副词有三种正确的形式：a) 另起一句; b) 前面用分号; c) 用and引导。如：I got up early and therefore I caught the early bus.I got up early; therefore, I caught the early bus.I got up early. Therefore, I caught the early bus.2) 主从复合句英语的从句有状语从句、定语从句和名词性从句（即主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句）三大类，相当于一个句子作状语、作定语、作主语、作宾语、作表语、作同位语。a) 主句 + 状语从句（斜体为从句引导词）I got up early so that I could catch the train. 主句 + 目的状语从句As long as you work hard, you will eventually succeed. 条件状语从句 + 主句I have put the picture where I can see it every day. 主句 + 地点状语从句b) 主句 + 定语从句（斜体为从句引导词）由关系代词who, whom, whose, which, that引导（也有关系副词when, where, why）。关系代词、关系副词必须代替先行词（就是定语从句所修饰的那个词），是定语从句必不可少的句子成分：The teacher who was shy said something. （who指人，代替先行词the teacher，在定语从句（划线部分，下同）中作主语。）All (that) we need / All that is needed is a continuous supply of money.（that既可以指人又可以指物，本句中指物，代词先行词all，在定语从句中分别作宾语（第一句）、作主语（第二句），加括号表示可以省略。）注意：关系代词在定语从句中作宾语时可以省略，但作介词的宾语且介词提前时就不能省略。I will never forget the day when / on which I first met her.Do you know the reason why / for which he resigned?另外，定语从句中介词提前时，后面只能跟which和whom，不能用who和that，介词不提前则都可以，还可以省略（用括号表示）：Do you know the teacher (who / whom) he is referring to?Do you know the teacher to whom he is referring?（在定语从句中，who既是主格又是宾格，但whom只是宾格。）c) 主句 + 主语从句/宾语从句/表语从句/同位语从句（统称为名词性从句）He told me / He said that he came from China. 主句 + 宾语从句（划线部分，斜体为引导词）He asked when / why / how / whether I was leaving Shenzhen, 主句 + 宾语从句The problem is how we can solve the problem in such a short time. 主句 + 表语从句That China is a developing country is known to all. 主句 + 主语从句= It is known to all that China is a developing country. （that引导主语从句常用it作形式主语）I was surprised at the news that he was leaving Shenzhen. 主句 + 同位语从句（一个名词是另外一个名词的同位语表示两个词指的是同一个人或物，第二个名词是同位语。同位语从句常跟在fact, news, suggestion, impression, belief, idea, thought, sign等词之后，表示这些名词的具体内容。又如： Shenzhen, once a small fishing village, is now a metropolitan city. | Therere signs that the economy is recovering. 划线部分均为同位语。）3. 并列句和从句引导词小结1) 并列句引导词and, but, or, for, so2) 定语从句引导词which, that, who, whom, whose, when, where, why, as3) 名词性从句引导词that (用于陈述事实), if /whether (用于一般疑问), when, where, what, which, who, whose, how (用于特殊疑问)4) 状语从句引导词英语有12种状语从句，引导词也有近百个，举例如下：as, because, when, before, since, so that, although, as long as, providing/p