Academic+Reading+3.docx

Academic Reading 3学术阅读3Using Interactive Technology to Support Students Understanding of the Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming利用交互技术支持学生对温室效应和全球变暖的认识Keisha Varma and Marcia C. Linn凯莎瓦尔玛和马西娅林恩Introduction介绍1 Although global warming is a popular topic in science classes in most middle and high schools, there is little understanding of the greenhouse effect. Anderson and Wallin (2000) conducted a study focusing on high school students. They found that these students had several different representations of the greenhouse effect. Many confused the greenhouse effect with global warming and described it by listing the causes of global warming. Others confused the greenhouse effect with “the ozone effect” (Anderson and Wallin, 2000). This confusion about the relationship between the greenhouse effect and the ozone effect is common (Francis et al., 1993；Meadows and Wiesenmayer, 1999；Rye et al., 1997). Data from Meadows and Wiesenmayers (1999) study indicate that some students have incorporated this misconception into their knowledge frameworks of global warming and use it to reason about all issues related to the global warming phenomenon. Other work shows that some pre-service teachers also attribute the cause of climate change to the depletion of the ozone layer (Papadimiriou, 2004).虽然全球变暖是大多数初中和高中科学课的热门话题，但对温室效应的理解却很少。安德森和沃林(2000)进行了一项针对高中生的研究。他们发现这些学生对温室效应有不同的表现。许多人把温室效应与全球变暖混为一谈，并把全球变暖的原因列举出来。还有一些人将温室效应与“臭氧效应”(安德森和沃林,2000)混为一谈。这种混淆关于温室效应和臭氧层效果之间的关系是很常见的(弗兰西斯等,1993梅多斯和维森迈尔,1999;赖伊等，1997)。来自梅多斯和维森迈尔(1999)的研究数据表明，一些学生将这种误解融入到全球变暖的知识框架中，并将其用于解释与全球变暖现象有关的所有问题。其他研究表明，一些职前教师还将气候变化的原因归咎于臭氧层的损耗(Papadimiriou,2004)。2 Obviously，helping students have a better understanding of greenhouse gases and their impact on the temperature of the Earth is urgent. In the work presented in this paper，a series of activities were conducted around the Global Warming：Virtual Earth（GWVE)curriculum unit. The goal is for students to learn about the role of each concept in the greenhouse effect and to understand how they interact to create the greenhouse effect. The activities also help students understand the relationship between the greenhouse effect and global warming. We measure students representations by analyzing their responses to a series of open-ended questions about the concepts covered in the module.显然,帮助学生更好地了解温室气体,对地球温度的影响是紧迫的。在本文提供的工作,进行了一系列的活动在全球变暖:虚拟地球(GWVE)课程单元。目的是让学生了解每个概念在温室效应中的作用，并了解它们是如何相互作用产生温室效应的。这些活动还帮助学生了解温室效应和全球变暖之间的关系。我们通过分析学生对模块中所涉及概念的一系列开放式问题的回答来测量学生的表现。Methods方法Research design研究设计3 The main research question is，“How does students understanding of the greenhouse effect and global warming change after participating in a technology-enhanced learning environment featuring virtual experiments virtual experiment虚拟实验，即通过计算机操作的实验 with an interactive visualization visualization n. 可视化 ？”This research is based on GWVE curriculum unit. In the week-long unit during their science classes，students participate in an eight-question，paper-and-pencil assessment prior to and following participation in the unit，creating a matched sample comparison. A series of matched sample t-tests t-test t检验，也称Student t 检验（Students t-test），主要用于样本含量较小总体标准差未知的正态分布资料 are used to determine the degree of significance between pre- and post-test performance.主要研究的问题是,“学生如何理解参与技术强化学习环境特色和交互式可视化虚拟实验后的温室效应和全球变暖改变?“这项研究是基于GWVE课程单元。在在科学课上为期一周的单元,学生参与一个8个问题,纸笔评估之前和之后的参与单元,创建一个匹配样本的比较。通过一系列匹配的样本t检验来确定测试前和测试后性能之间的显著性。Participants参与者4 Five teachers from three schools on the west coast and two schools in the southeastern US enacted the curriculum unit in their sixth-grade science classes. The teachers each had at least two years of experience using our curriculum units in their instruction. Each teacher received targeted professional development support (Varma et al.，2008). The professional development activities included meetings to introduce the overall Web-based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE) and the GWVE unit. Teachers also received classroom support to help them incorporate the activities in their instruction (Varma et al.，2008). One hundred and ninety sixth-grade students (98 males and 92 females) participated in the unit activities and the pre-/post-assessments.美国西海岸三所学校的五名教师和美国东南部的两所学校开设了六年级的课程单元。每位教师在教学中都有至少两年的课程使用经验。每一位老师收到了有针对性的专业发展支持(Varma et al .,2008)。专业发展活动包括会议介绍全面的基于网络的调查科学环境(WISE)和GWVE单元。教师还得到了教室的支持，帮助他们在教学中融入活动(Varma et al,2008)。一百九十名六年级学生(98名男性和92名女性)参加了单元活动和前/后评估。 Procedure过程5 Students participation began with their individual completion of an eight-question，paper-and-pencil pre-test. Classroom teachers administered the pre-test during the students normal class meetings. The questions，presented in Table 1，were primarily open-ended questions about global warming，the greenhouse effect，and the individual factors that contribute to these phenomena. Following the pre-test，all students worked in pairs to complete the activities and embedded reflection notes in the GWVE unit.学生们的参与开始于他们的个人完成一个8个问题，纸和笔的预测试。课堂上的教师在学生正常的课堂上进行了预测试。这些问题，如表1所示，主要是关于全球变暖、温室效应以及导致这些现象的个别因素的开放性问题。在预考后，所有学生都成对工作，完成了GWVE单元的活动和嵌入式反思笔记。Table 1 Pre-/Post-test questions表1预处理/测试后的问题 1). Describe how the greenhouse effect happens. Try to make sure that you use the following three terms：1）solar energy，2）infrared energy Infrared energy 红外线辐射能，and 3）greenhouse gases. 2). What is global warming？ 3). What is the difference between the greenhouse effect and global warming？ 4). Look at the list below and select all of the factors that you think have an effect on global warming.- Acid Rain- Water Vapor - Greenhouse Gases- Clouds- Carbon Dioxide- The Ozone Layer- Solar Energy- Infrared Energy 5). What is the role of albedo albedo n.反照率 in the greenhouse effect？ 6). What is the role of clouds in the greenhouse effect？ 7). What is the role of greenhouse gases in global warming？Be sure to be as detailed as possible when you explain your answer. You can draw a picture to help explain your thoughts.8). Picture A shows a real greenhouse where light from the sun passes through the glass panels and heats the inside. The glass panels of the greenhouse keep the heat energy from escaping. Picture B shows the greenhouse effect that happens on the Earth. Which part of the picture is like the glass of the greenhouse？Circle One. SUN SPACE ATMOSPHERE EARTH Explain your answer.1).描述温室效应是如何发生的。试着确保你使用以下三个方面:1)太阳能、2)红外能量,3)温室气体。2)。全球变暖是什么?3)。什么是温室效应和全球变暖之间的区别吗?请看下面的列表，选择所有你认为对全球变暖有影响的因素。酸雨- - - - -水蒸气温室气体- - - - -云二氧化碳臭氧层太阳能红外能量5)。在温室效应反照率的作用是什么?6)。云在温室效应的作用是什么?7)。什么是全球变暖的温室气体的作用?一定要尽可能详细解释你的答案。你可以画一幅图来解释你的想法。图A是一个真实的温室，阳光透过玻璃面板，加热内部。温室的玻璃板使热能不受热量的影响。图B显示了地球上发生的温室效应。哪一部分的图片就像温室的玻璃?圆。太阳太空大气地球解释你的答案。6 The unit includes six main activities. In the first activity，students view short video clips as an introduction to the global warming phenomenon and calculate their ecological footprint ecological footprint 生态足迹，即个人对环境的总体影响using an online ecological footprint calculator (Islandwood，2010). In the second activity, students learn about the Earths energy balance and observe the energy transformation depicted in the visualizations.该单元包括六项主要活动。在第一个活动,学生查看录像短片介绍全球变暖的现象,并计算其生态足迹使用在线生态足迹计算器(Islandwood,2010)。在第二项活动中，学生们了解地球的能量平衡，并观察在可视化中所描绘的能量转换。7 In the third activity，students conduct experiments with the visualization to learn about greenhouse gases，clouds and albedo. The fourth activity is a jigsaw jigsaw n. 切块拼接法 activity in which by conducting experiments half of the students learn about clouds and the other half learn about albedo. Teachers randomly assign student pairs to each topic. Throughout these experimentation and reflection steps，embedded notes prompt students to generate hypotheses，gather evidence，draw conclusions and make connections between new and pre-existing ideas. At the end of the fourth activity，all students participate in an online discussion to share their knowledge as a completion of the jigsaw activity and learn about the factor that they did not investigate. In the fifth activity，students use a more complex visualization to learn about how population levels impact greenhouse gas emissions and global warming. This visualization allows students to manipulate the population growth rate and CO2 emission. The results of their manipulation will show a numerical representation of the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere，the temperature of the Earth and the albedo level. Additionally，there is a graph representing the temperature fluctuations that occur as a result of students manipulations (Tinker，2005). In the final activity，students create a family plan to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and recalculate their ecological footprint based on their planned behavior changes.在第三个活动,学生进行实验与可视化了解温室气体,云层和反照率。第四个活动是一个拼图活动，通过实验，一半的学生学习了云，另一半学习了反照率。老师随机分配学生对每个题目。在这些实验和反射的步骤,指出嵌入式提示学生生成假设,收集证据,得出结论,使新的和已有的思想之间的联系。第四个活动结束时,所有学生参与网上讨论分享他们的知识完成拼图活动,了解他们没有调查的因素。在第五个活动中,学生使用一个更复杂的可视化学习人口水平如何影响温室气体的排放和全球变暖。这种可视化方法可以让学生控制人口增长率和二氧化碳排放。他们操纵的结果将显示的数值表示大气中温室气体的浓度,地球的温度和反照率水平。此外,有一个图表示温度波动发生由于学生操作(修改,2005)。在最后的活动,学生创建一个家庭计划减少温室气体排放和重新计算生态足迹基于计划行为变化。8 Students participated in the unit activities for five one-hour class periods in one week. The curriculum unit was enacted as a part of the teachers normal classroom instruction. The teacher served as the lead instructor. At least one researcher was present in the classrooms to observe the enactment and to assist with technology issues. Following the unit activities, students individually completed a paper-and-pencil post-test comprising the same questions included in the pre-test. The pre-and post-test assessments lasted Approximately 20 minutes each.学生在一周内参加五小时一班的单元活动。课程单元作为教师正常课堂教学的一部分而制定。老师担任首席教师。至少有一名研究人员在场，以观察制定和协助处理技术问题。在单元活动之后，学生们分别完成了考前测试中包含的相同问题的纸笔测验。测试前后的评估持续大约20分钟。Data analysis数据分析9 The main data were generated from students responses to eight open-ended questions included in the pre-and post-tests. The first three questions assess students understanding of the target phenomena（the greenhouse effect and global warming）at a systemic level. Questions 1 and 2 ask students to describe the greenhouse effect and global warming. Question 3 asks them to describe the difference between the two.主要数据来自学生对8个开放式问题的回答，这些问题包括在考试前和考试后。前三个问题在系统性水平评估学生的理解目标现象(温室效应和全球变暖)。问题1和2要求学生描述温室效应和全球变暖。问题3要求他们描述两者的区别。10 Question 4 assesses students alternative ideas about the factors that contribute to global warming. It includes a checklist of eight factors that are possible contributors. Students were asked to “Look at the list below and select all of the factors that you think have an effect on global warming.”Students received a score of one through six based on the number of correct selections. Questions 5，6 and 7 ask students to explain how particular components（albedo，clouds，and greenhouse gases）are involved in the greenhouse effect. The final question is a representation analysis prompt. It asks students to analyze how an actual greenhouse represents the scientific phenomenon, the greenhouse effect. 问题4评估学生关于导致全球变暖的因素的其他观点。它包括八个因素的清单，这些因素是可能的贡献者。学生们被要求“看看下面的列表，选择你认为对全球变暖有影响的所有因素”。学生们根据正确选择的数量，获得了1到6分的分数。问题5、6和7问学生解释特定组件(反射率、云层和温室气体)参与温室效应。最后一个问题是一个表示分析提示。它要求学生分析一个实际的温室是如何代表科学现象的，温室效应。11 Students responses to all questions except Question 4 were coded using knowledge integration knowledge integration 知识集成，即分散知识的有机整合 scoring rubrics rubric n. 指示；规则（Table 2）. Each response received a score of zero through five based on the correctness of the expressed ideas and links between the ideas. Each rubric was created based on an analysis of the links present in a fully correct response to each question. 学生应对所有的问题,除了问题4编码使用知识集成得分评估准则(表2)。每一个反应都是根据表达的想法的正确性和思想之间的联系，从0到5的分数。每个标题都是基于对每个问题的完全正确回答的链接的分析而创建的。12 A group of researchers familiar with the curriculum unit design and the knowledge integration framework reviewed the rubrics and the example responses to ensure that the correct criteria would be applied to the data. Twenty percent of the tests were coded by a second researcher for reliability (97%). Discrepant codes were resolved via discussions between the coders. 一组熟悉课程单元设计和知识集成框架的研究人员回顾了题目和示例响应，以确保将正确的标准应用于数据。百分之二十的测试是由第二名研究人员编写的，用于可靠性(97%)。有差异的代码通过编码者之间的讨论得到解决。13 One of the pre- / post-test questions was，“Describe how the greenhouse effect happens. Try to make sure that you use the following three terms：1) solar energy，2) infrared energy，and 3) greenhouse gases.”A complete，well-integrated response includes linked information about solar energy，infrared energy，greenhouse gases，and the Earths temperature. The first three columns in Table 2 show the general sequence of scores and knowledge integration（KI）levels that are used to code students responses to each of the open-ended pre- / post-test questions. This framework is used across all of the pre- / post-test questions except Questions 4. The fourth column lists example Question 1 responses for each KI level. 前置/测试后的一个问题是,“描述温室效应是如何发生的。试着确保你使用以下三个方面:1)太阳能、2)红外能量,3)温室气体。”一个完整的、完整的反应包括联系信息太阳能、红外能量,温室气体,地球的温度。前三列在表2中显示分数和知识集成的一般序列(KI)水平用于代码学生应对每一个开放式的前/后测试问题。除了问题4之外，该框架适用于所有的前/后测试问题。第四列列出了每个KI级别的示例问题1。Table 2 Example KI rubrics and example student responses to Question 1 “Describe how the greenhouse effect happens.” 表2例子KI 评估准则和学生回答问题1“描述温室效应是如何发生的。”Score分数KI level KI水平Description描述Example student response例如学生的反应0No answer无应答/1Irrelevant不相干的Students write some text，but do not answer the question.学生写一些文本，但不回答问题。I dont know what a greenhouse is.我不知道温室是什么。2Incorrect错误的Response is scientificallyincorrect.反应是科学上的错误。The greenhouse gases come outfrom the greenhouse and into theatmosphere，which creates thegreenhouse effect. 温室气体从温室气体排放到大气中，产生温室效应。3Partial link部分联系Students have relevant and correct ideas，but do not fully elaborate the link between the two in a given context.学生有相关和正确的想法,但并不完全详尽的一分之二给定的上下文之间的联系。The greenhouse gases keep theInfrared radiation（IR）in.温室气体使红外辐射(IR)。4Full link完全联系Students elaborate a scientifically valid link between the two ideas relevant to a given context.学生们详细阐述了与特定上下文相关的两个概念之间的科学有效联系。Too much CO2 builds up，makingthe infrared energy bounce backdown to the Earth and so the temperature gets higher太多的二氧化碳积聚,使得红外能量反弹到地球的温度会更高5Complex link复杂的联系Students elaborate three or more scientifically valid links among ideas relevant to a given context.学生在与给定的上下文相关的思想中精心设计三个或更科学有效的链接。Sunlight heats the Earth，causing it to release IR energy，which then bounces off a greenhouse gas such as CO2 back toward the Earth. This warms the overall temperature.阳光加热了地球,导致红外能量释放,然后反射一种温室气体,如二氧化碳回到地球。这会使整个温度升高。Thy to make sure that you use the following three terms：1）solar energy，2）infrared energy，and3）greenhouse gases.你确保你使用以下三个方面:1)太阳能、2)红外能量,3)温室气体。14 Matched t-test analyses were conducted to measure differences in students understanding prior to and following their participation in the unit activities. For each t-test，Cohens d was calculated to report the effect sizes (Cohen，1992). These data help show how participating in the interactive unit activities changed students understanding of the greenhouse effect and global warming.通过配对的t 检验分析来衡量学生在参与单元活动之前和之后的理解上的差异。对于每一个学习任务,科恩的d计算报告的影响大小(科恩,1992)。这些数据有助于说明参与互动单元活动如何改变学生对温室效应和全球变暖的认识。Results15 Following participation in the GWVE unit activities，students ideas were more normative and better integrated. Scores from each question were summed to calculate an overall learning score，Mean overall learning scores improved from pre- to post-participation(t (189) =8.66，p.001）. 参与GWVE单元活动后,学生的想法是更规范,更好的整合。分数从每个问题总结计算整体学习成绩,意味着从测试前到参与整体学习成绩提高(t(189)= 8.66,p .001)。16 Responses to individual pre- / post-test questions were analyzed using matched t tests for a more detailed examination of changes in students understanding. See Table 3 for a summary of the analyses. Students performance on the post-test showed improved understanding of the greenhouse effect (t (189)=6.96，p.001）. 对个别前/后测试问题的反应用配对的t检验分析，以更详细地检验学生理解的变化。分析的摘要见表3。学生在测试后显示改善温室效应的理解(t(189)= 6.96,p .001)。Table 3 pre-/Post-test performance analyses表3预/后测试性能分析Pre-testmean（SD）预测试均值（SD）Post-test Mean（SD）测试后均值（SD）DifferenceMean(SD）差分均值（SD）Effectsize（d）影响尺寸（d）tpItem 1Greenhouse effect温室效应1.87（1.10）2.73（1.19）86（1.37）.638.66.001Item 2Global warming全球变暖2.38（.97）2.91（.97）53（1.04）.506.96.001Item 3Difference差异1.73（1.06）2.75（1.07）1.02（1.47）.699.52.001Item 4Alternative ideas其他的想法2.43（1.67）3.22（2.08）.79（1.68）.476.47.001Item 5Albedo反照率.74（.76）1.64（1.30）.90（1.45）.628.54.001Item 6Clouds云1.27（1.00）2.24（1.23）.97（1.46）.669.24.001Item 7Greenhouse gases 温室气体1.65（1.23）2.46（1.29）.81（1.48）.557.56.001Item 8Atmosphere大气2.25（1.91）2.52（1.19）.27（1.39）.192.65.001Total KI scoreKI总分17.85（5.41）24.36（6.09）6.51（6.45）1.019.32.00117 Prior to instruction，students had some understanding of the greenhouse effect，but it was generally incomplete or incorrect. For example，one student wrote，“I think the greenhouse effect happens when solar energy is trapped in the stratosphere stratosphere n. 同温层,”and another wrote, “The solar energy gets stronger and the infrared energy goes away.”Several responded with “I dont know.”On the post-test, students responses included more ideas about the interaction of the key factors. They also had more links between their ideas, indicating that their understanding was more integrated.教学前,学生有一些对温室效应的理解,但一般都不完整或不正确的。例如,一个学生写道:“我认为温室效应发生在太阳能是困在平流层,”另一个写道:“太阳能越来越强大和红外能量消失。几个人回答说:“我不知道。”在测试后，学生的回答包括了更多关于关键因素相互作用的观点。他们的想法之间也有更多的联系，这表明他们的理解更加完整。18 Students responded to “What is global warming？” on the pre-test with incomplete ideas from popular media. S