狒狒逻辑笔记.doc

GMAT逻辑总纲 费允杰第一部分：逻辑总纲第一章：做题步骤一 先读问题（通过英文标志词读出题型）。二 再读文章（随题型不同而发生变化）。三 再看选项。1 根据题型特点。2 排除法（通用排除法和无关词排除法）。3 白痴型思维。第二章：五大题型1 归纳2 演绎（假设，加强，削弱，评价）3 解释4 填空5 句子作用第一节：归纳英文标志词：conclusion; inferred; implied; supported; if above true, then it is also true.读文章方式：不要关心文章的推导过程，尽量减少思维，承认文章正确，只抓信息一 公共元素直推法。If A, then B. ABOnly if A, then B. BAMust by A, in order to B. BAIf only A, then B. ABNot A, unless B. ABA, unless B. A, BA require B. ABA is necessary to B. BAA depend/draw/base on B. AB例1.所有的人都去了。我是人。公共信息：人直接推结论：我去了。例2.To be mentally healthy, people must have self-respect. People can maintain self-respect only by continually earning the respect of others they esteem. They can earn this respect only by treating these others morally.Which of the following conclusions can be properly drawn from the statements above?(A) People who are mentally healthy will be treated morally by others.(B) People who are mentally healthy will have treated morally those they esteem.(C) People who are mentally healthy must have self-respect in other to be treated morally by others.(D) People can expect to be treated morally by others only if they esteem these others.(E) People who have self-respect seldom treat morally those esteem.例3. Most television viewers estimate how frequently a particular type of accident or crime occurs by how extensively it is discussed on television news shows. Television news shows report more on stories that include dramatic pictures such as fires and motor vehicle accidents than they do on more common stories that have little visual drama such as bookkeeping fraud. If the statements above are true, it can be properly concluded that which of the following is also true?(A) The time television news reporters spend researching news stories is directly related to the number of viewers who will be affected by events like those in the news stories.(B) It is easier for crimes such as bookkeeping fraud to go unprosecuted than it is crimes such as arson.(C) The number of fires and motor vehicle accidents greatly increases after each television news show that includes dramatic pictures of a fire or motor vehicle accident.(D) Viewers of television news show tend to overestimate the number of fires and motor vehicle accidents that occur relative to the number of crimes of bookkeeping fraud.(E) The usual selection of news stories for television news show is determined by the number of news reporters available for assignment.二 无关词排除法。例1. 马克思说：“这本书只从资产阶级的角度去考虑问题，是不正确的。”问题：从文中能推出马克思认为这本书应从什么角度考虑问题？(A)奴隶主阶级 (B)地主阶级 (C)工人阶级 (D)无产阶级 (E)资产阶级以外的阶级例2. Experienced pilots often have more trouble than novice pilots in learning to fly the newly developed ultralight airplanes. Being accustomed to heavier aircraft, experienced pilots, when flying ultralight craft, seem not to respect the wind as much as they should. The passage implies that the heavier aircraft mentioned above are(A) harder to land than ultralight aircraft(B) not as popular with pilots as ultralight aircraft(C) not as safe as ultralight aircraft(D) more fuel-efficient than ultralight aircraft(E) easier to handle in wind than ultralight aircraft第二节：演绎读文章方式：读懂文章的推导过程。一. 第一种文章（前提结论结构）： 标志词： since A,B; A,therefore B; A,conclude B; A,clear B; A,obviously B; A,indicate/show B if A,then B; by A,in order to B; plan A,to B.1. 假设。英文标志词：assume, assumption, presuppose, additional premise, not true unless, depend on, rely on.桥梁型 。AB例1New Jersey has one of the lowest motor vehicle fatality rates in the country, and it is one of the few states that require extensive annual automobile safety inspections. Therefore, all states should adopt similar safety inspection procedures.The argument above is based on which of the following assumptions?(A) Most states tend to impose few rules and regulations on the automobile drivers operating within those states.(B) Most states are skeptical that annual automobile safety inspections can reduce fatality rates.(C) Annual automobile safety inspections contribute significantly to holding down New Jerseys fatality rate.(D) Drivers in New Jersey are more safety conscious than are drivers in other parts of the country.(E) A smaller number of people die on the roads in New Jersey than in most other states.例2. The federal government expects hospitals to perform 10,000 organ transplants next year. But it is doubtful that this many donor organs will be available, since the number of fatalities resulting from car and motorcycle accidents has been dropping steadily over the past decade.The argument above makes which of the following assumptions?(A) A significant number of the organs used in transplants come from people who die in car and motorcycle accidents.(B) The number of car and motorcycle accidents will increase significantly during the next year.(C) No more than 10,000 people will be in need of organ transplants during the next year.(D) In the past the federal governments estimates of the number of organ transplants needed during a given year have been very unreliable.(E) For any given fatality resulting from a car or motorcycle accident, there is a hospital in the vicinity in need of an organ for a transplant.例3. 因为别人的老婆都有别墅， 所以我也应该有别墅。假设：我应该是别人的老婆。例4. “On the whole,” Ms. Dennis remarked, “engineering students are lazier now that they used to be. I know because fewer and fewer of my students regularly do the work they are assigned.”The conclusion drawn above depends on which of the following assumptions?(A) Engineering students are working less because, in a booming market they are spending more and more time investigating different job opportunities.(B) Whether or not students do the work they are assigned is a good indication of how lazy they are.(C) Engineering students should work harder than students in less demanding fields.(D) Ms. Dennis students are doing less work because Ms. Dennis is not as effective a teacher as she once was.(E) Laziness is something most people do not outgrow.例5. A test of the National Weather Services stormdetecting radar systems found that the 1957 system is ten times more reliable than the new computerized system. Therefore the technology used in the new radar system must be less sophisticated than the radar technology used in the 1957 system.The conclusion drawn above depends on which of the following questionable assumptions?(A) The reliability of storm-detecting radar systems is determined by the frequency of breakdowns.(B) The level of sophistication of the technology used in storm-detecting radar system can be determined from the reliability of the system.(C) The reliability of storm-detecting radar systems is determined by their accuracy in predicting weather patterns.(D) Computer hardware is now a key component of the new storm-detecting radar systems used by weather forecasting services.(E) Most of the significant advances in stormdetecting technology were made in the 1950s.2. 加强。 英文标志词：support, strengthen, conclusion can be drawn if it were true that.（1） 桥梁型。AB（2） B存在。例1. Because incumbent members of Congress are given a great deal of attention by the news media and because they enjoy such perquisites as free mail privileges and generous travel allowances, incumbents enjoy an overwhelming advantage over their challengers in elections for the United States Congress.Which of the following, if true, best supports the claim above?(A) In the last congressional elections, incumbents met with a larger number of lobbyists than did challengers.(B) In the last congressional elections, 98 percent of the incumbents in the House of Representatives who were seeking reelection won.(C) Incumbent members of Congress are frequently critical of the amount of attention given to them by the news media.(D) The support that political station action committees provide to challengers for congressional seats often compensates for the perquisites enjoyed by incumbent members of Congress.(E) Of all incumbent senators surveyed before the last congressional elections, 78 percent said that their challengers did not pose a serious threat to their chances for reelection.例2. Recent surveys show that many people who seek media help are under a great deal of stress. Medical research also shows that stress can adversely affect an individuals immune system, which is responsible for combating many infections. Thus when a person is under stress, he or she is more likely to become ill.Which of the following, if true, would most strength the conclusion above?(A) Many businesses that provide health insurance for their employees also provide seminars on stress management.(B) Many businesses report a significant decrease in absenteeism during periods when employees feel pressured by management.(C) There is a marked decrease in the number of complaints presented at college infirmaries during vacation time.(D) There is a marked increase in the number of illness treated at college infirmaries around the time of examinations.(E) Most people report that being in a hospital or an infirmary is a stressful situation.3. 削弱。 英文标志词：weaken, cast doubt, argue against, damage, counter, challenge, refute, jeopardize, undermine, drawback, flaw, criticism, reasoning error, weakness.（1） 断桥型。AB例1. Scientists now believe that artificial-hip implants, previously thought to be safe, may actually increase the risk of cancer in recipients after about 45 years of use. Though these implants do improve the quality of recipients lives, the increased risk of cancer is an unacceptable price to pay for these improvements. Therefore, they should be banned.Which of the following, if true, is the strongest counterargument to the argument above?(A) Artificial-hip implant surgery can cause severe complications, such as infection, chronic fever, and bone degeneration, and these complications can themselves be crippling or even fatal.(B) Almost all artificial-hip implant recipients receive their implants at an age when they are unlikely to live more than an additional 30 years.(C) Although artificial-hip implants increase the risk of cancer after about 45 year of use, a few of the cancers they induce are not fatal.(D) Since artificial-hip implants are not very common, banning them would cause little hardship.(E) Although the benefits of artificial-hip implant surgery have remained substantially the same over the past decade, the price of the surgery has risen considerably.例2. Metropolis regulation limiting to four days the period during which milk can be sold to consumers after pasteurization is unreasonable. Under optimal conditions, pasteurized milk kept at 40 degrees Fahrenheit remains unspoiled for at least 14 days. If Metropolis current limitation were changed to eight days, milk prices would drop, but product quality would be unaffected. Which of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the conclusion drawn above?(A) Most consumers keep milk no more than three days after purchase.(B) A recent survey showed that 20 percent of Metropolis consumers favored extending the current limitation on the sale of milk to 8 days.(C) Metropolis grocery-store owners would prefer small, frequent deliveries of milk to larger, infrequent deliveries.(D) Milk kept longer than 14 days after pasteurization generally presents no medical dangers if consumed.(E) In Metropolis, conditions for handling and storing milk after pasteurization are seldom close to optimum.例3. The country of Maravia has severe air pollution, 80 percent of which is caused by the exhaust fumes of cars. In order to reduce the number of cars on the road, the government is raising taxes on the cost of buying and running a car by 20 percent. This tax increase, therefore will significantly reduce air pollution in Maravia.Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument above?(A) The government of Maravia is in the process of building a significant number of roadways.(B) Maravia is an oil-producing country and is able to refine an amount of gasoline sufficient for the needs of its pollution.(C) Maravia has had an excellent public transportation system for many years.(D) Ninety percent of the population of Maravia is very prosperous and has a substantial amount of disposable income.(E) In Maravia, cars that emit relatively low levels of pollutions cost 10 percent less to operate, on average, than do cars that emit high levels of pollutions.（2） 他因。例4. The excessive number of safety regulations that the federal government has placed on industry poses more serious hardships for big businesses than for small ones. Since large companies do everything on a more massive scale, they must alter more complex operations and spend much more money to meet government requirements.Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument above?(A) Small companies are less likely than large companies to have the capital reserve for improvements.(B) The operations of small companies frequently rely on the same technologies as the operations of large companies.(C) Safety regulation codes are uniform, established without reference to size of company.(D) Large companies typically have more of their profits invested in other business than do small companies.(E) Large companies are in general more likely than small companies to diversity the markets and products.4. 评价。 英文标志词：evaluate, appraisal.当加强来做。例. According to a recent survey, marriage is fattening. Cited as evidence is the surveys finding that the average woman gains 23 pounds and the average man gains 18 pounds during 13 years of marriage.The answer to which of the following questions would be most relevant in evaluating the reasoning presented in the survey?(A) Why was the period of time studied in the survey 13 years, rather than 12 or 14?(B) Did some of the men surveyed gain less than 18 pounds during the time they were married?(C) How much weight is gained or lost in 13 years by single people of comparable age to those surveyed?(D) Were the woman surveyed as active as the men surveyed, at the time survey was made?(E) Will the reported gains be maintained over the lifetimes of the persons surveyed?二. 第二种文章（因果结构）： 第三种文章（变态结构）： 第二种文章的标志词： 文中：A is due to B; A is attribute to B; A is result of B; blame B on/for A; B is responsible for A; credit A to B. 问题中：explanation, interpretation, hypothesis.第三种文章的标志词： 与第一种文章相同，表面上是前提结论结构，实质为因果结构，即结论是前提的解释。 1. 削弱。(1) 断桥型。 例1. Artificial seaweed made of plastic has been placed on a section of coast in order to reverse beach erosion. The inventor of the seaweed has concluded that the recent buildup of sand on that section of coast proves that the artificial seaweed reverses beach erosion.Which of the following, if true, world most seriously weaken the inventors conclusion?(A) The amount of recent sand buildup on that section of coast was less than had been predicted on the basis of the results obtained in controlled experiments.(B) Because artificial seaweed would be buried eventually by additional sand deposits on the coast, more artificial seaweed would need to be put in place every four years.(C) Artificial seaweed of another material which had been previously developed by the inventor failed to add sand to coastline in past trials.(D) The amount of recent sand buildup on that section of coast is the same as the amount of recent sand buildup on otherwise very similar sections of coast without artificial seaweed.(E) The amount of recent sand buildup on that section of coast, although considerable, is not yet enough to replace the amount lost during storms on that section of coast in the last twenty years.例2. The presence of microorganisms that produce a toxin cause sweater to turn brownish red, phenomenon known as a red ride. Sea otters do not feed in areas where clams, their main source of food, have become contaminated with this toxin. According to a proposed explanation of the otters behavior, the otters sample the clams in a potential feeding area and can taste any toxin in them.Which of the following, if true, would most strongly indicate that the hypothesis described in the last sentence of the passage of the passage is not correct?(A) In some of the area where red tides occur, neither clams nor sea otters are indigenous species.(B) The presence of sea otters in a given area has a significant effect on which other marine organisms are to be found in that areas.(C) When seawater in an area unaffected by red tide is artificially dyed brownish red, sea otters do not feed on the clams in that area.(D) If the clams in a given areas are contaminated with toxin, sea otters move to other areas in search of food.(E) Although very small amounts of the toxin produced during a red tide are not harmful, large doses can be fatal to animals the size of sea otters.例3. Since 1945 there have been numerous international confrontations as tense as those that precipitated the Second World War, and yet no large-scale conflict has resulted. To explain this, some argue that fear of enormous destruction such as the Second War produced has had a dramatic deterrent effect.Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the deterrent theory mentioned above?(A) After the First World War, the fear of great future destruction was as intense as it was after the Second World War.(B) Psychologists have determined that the fear of retaliation tends to temper aggressiveness among human beings.(C) The Second World War was far less distractive than most people generally believe.(D) Fear of repeating the