英语写作手册复习资料.doc

Part OneYou should do everything-writing the tile, leaving margins, indenting, capitalizing, and diving words-according to generally accepted rules.Arrangement1. Write the title in the middle of the first line. Capitalize the first and last words of the title and all other words (including words following hyphens in compound words) except articles, coordinating conjunctions, prepositions, and the to in infinitives2. No period is used at the end of a tile. prr:f3. Indent ndent the first line of every paragraph, leaving a space of about four or five ma 逗号 period 句号 semicolon 分号 colon 冒号 question mark 问号 exclamation mark 感叹号bracket 括号 parentheses 小括号 quotation mark 引号 hyphen 破折号Do not begin a line with a comma, a period, a semicolon semikln, a colon, a question mark or an exclamation mark. Do not end a line with the first half of pair of brackets, parentheses, or quotation marks. The hyphen that indicated a divided word is put at the end, not at the beginning, of a line.Capitalization kptlazen（大写）Capitals are used mainly at three places: the first words if sentences, key words in titles, and proper names.Word Division（移行）The general principle is to divide a word according to its syllables and never put the hyphen at the beginning of a line. 详见书P3.Punctuation pktuen (标点)Use a period (full stop) at the end of a complete sentence, however short it is.Do not use a comma to join two coordinate clauses; use a comma and a conjunction, or a semicolon.Make your commas different form your periods. A comma has a little tail (,); a period is a dot(.), not a tiny circle (。), which is used in written Chinese.Use a question mark at the end of a direct question; do not use one at the end of a indirect question.Use the exclamation mark only after an emphatic interjection or words that express very strong emotion. Do not overuse it.Put direct speech between quotation marks. The subject and verb that introduce a quotation may be put before, after, or in the middle of the quotation.Part Two.Levels of Words (Style or types)The words that are often used may be divided, from a stylistic point of view, into three types: formal, common, and informal.Formal words may also be called learned words, or literary words, or “big” words. Many such words contain three syllables. They are seldom used in daily conversation, except for special purposes.The people used every day, and appear in all kinds of writing. Because of this, they are called common words.There are words which are mainly used in informal or familiar conversation. They seldom appear in formal writing, and in literary works their use is to record people s thoughts and dialogs dalg(会话). They are usually short words of one or two syllables and most of them are of Saxon origin. We call them informal words.Slang words are highly informal; they may be vivid and interesting, but they may, when used inappropriately, make the writer or speaker sound offensive or funny.The Meaning of WordsThe meaning of word has two aspects: denotative dnttv and connotative knttv. (原义和涵义)A words denotation is what it literally means, as defined by the dictionary; its connotation is the felling or idea suggested by it.Big and large are both commonly used words, but large is slightly more formal and may be used to describe things that are unusually big, so it is more emphatic than big. Huge, which is more literary ltrri（文雅）than these two words, means extremely large, and is more emphatic than large.Small and little are often interchangeable, but there is some difference in emotional coloring between them. Small is objective (客观的), while little may imply a felling of fondness（主观色彩）.Modest and humble both indicate a lack of pride, but modesty is a virtue and humbleness is not. Humble often connotes undue self-depression. So they are different in tone: one is laudatory l:dtri (褒义词) and the other is derogatory drgt:ri:, -tri: (贬义词).General and Specific WordsSpecific words help to make writing clear, exact, vivid, and striking(准确), for they are more informative (信息量大) and expressive（表现力强）than general words.Idiomsdim (习语、成语)An idiom is a fixed group of words with a special meaning which is different form the meanings of the words that form it. The “read between the lines” is an idiom.Idiom are frequently used in speech and writing. They help to make ones language sound natural and idiomatic(地道).Figures of Speech (修辞格)1.Simile sml(明喻/直喻)It is a comparison between two distinctly different things and the comparison is indicated by the word as or like.The discrepancy dskrepns (矛盾) between the two things compared makes their similarity all the more striking（显著的；突出的）.e.g. He is as hungry as a hunter. e.g. He is as cool as cumber.2.Metaphor metf(r) (隐喻)It is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to another with a similar quality. It is also a comparison(比较关系), but the comparison is implied, not expressed with the word as or like.e.g. All the world is a stage. e.g. He had a very red face.3.Personification (拟人法)It is to treat a thing or an idea as if it were human or had human qualities.e.g. The apple was too sour, my teeth didnt like it. e.g. The flowers was smiled at me.4.Metonymymtnmi(换喻/转喻)It is substituting the name of one thing for another with which it is closely associated.e.g. He has a good ear for music. e.g. Have you ever read Jack London? e.g. Please，give me a hand. e.g. His unfriendly tongue surprised her.5.Synecdoche snekdki (提喻)When a part is substituted for the whole or the whole is substituted for a part. Metonymy and synecdoche are similar as both involve substitution. Sometimes they can hardly be distinguished form metaphor, which in away is also substitution.译：换喻与提喻存有相似之处：二者都是一种替换，有时他们隐喻与不易区分，因为后者在一种程度上也是一种替换。e.g. The problem is that we need more hands now. e.g. He has many months (家庭成员)to feed.6.Euphemismju:fmzm(婉言/委婉法)It is the substitution of a mild or vague expression for a harsh or unpleasant one.e.g. The girl is hard hearing. e.g. She is in a family way.7.Ironyarn(反语)It is the use of words, which are clearly opposite to what is meant, in order to achieve a special effect. 好，你真能干，能干得输给我了（反语）。 搬家很是有趣?e.g. Well , you are a beauty , you ve lost me the game . e.g. Moving in was fun!8.Overstatement and Understatement(夸大和缩小)In overstatement the diction exaggerates(夸大) the subject, and in understatement the words play down the magnitude(程度) or value of the subject. Overstatement is also called hyperbole(夸张).Both aim at the same effect: to make the statement or description impressive or interesting. (鲜明和有趣)e.g. He worked his fingers to the bones. (他拼老命地去工作。夸张到“把他的手指磨损得露出了骨头”。)e.g. We are none of us getting any younger.我们都不年轻啦。缩小9.Transferred Epithetepet(移就/移位修饰)A transferred epithet is one that is shifted form the noun it logically modifies to a word associated with that noun.e.g. She showed me an appalled gesture.(她向我作了一个吃惊的手势。) e.g. Happy new year.10.Oxymoronksm:rn(矛盾修饰法)In oxymoron apparently contradictory terms are combined to produce a special effect.e.g. He is a cleaver fool. 他是一个天生的傻瓜。11.Alliteration ltren (头韵法)It refers to the appearance of the same initial consonant sound in two or more words. 两个或更多的词以相同的辅音字母开始，便构成头韵。Alliteration is often used in poetry to give emphasis to words that are related in meaning. 如: e.g. Without rhyme or reason. 毫无理由 black and blue 鼻青脸肿 e.g. He will join the project, heart and hand. 他会满腔热情地参加这项计划。Part ThreeThe Sentence.Complete Sentences and Sentence Fragment(完整句和不完整句)A grammatically complete sentence is one that contains at least a subject and a predicate (or finite) verb; if the verb is transitive, these must be an object; if the verb is a link-verb, there must be a predicative or complement.像“Have done it” “Raining,” and “How to use it”为Sentence Fragment (不完整句)A complete sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period. The use of a comma fault in place of a period, a semicolon, a colon, or a dash in English writing is called the comma fault.Types of Sentences 1. Declarative, Interrogative, imperative, Exclamatory Sentences dklrtv陈述句ntrgtv疑问句mpertv祈使句ksklmtri感叹句According to their use, sentences are declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. A declarative sentence makes an assertion or a statement. An interrogative sentence asks a question. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request. An exclamatory sentence expresses a strong felling or emotion, such as surprise, pain, or joy.2. Simple, Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex Sentences 简单句 并列句 复合句 并列复合句According to their structure, sentences are simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.A simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate-verb, but it may contain more than one object, attribute or more adverbial.A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple sentences) related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, etc.) or by a semicolon without a conjunction. Coordinated ideas should be compatible and roughly equal in importance, or take shape one by one in orderly sequence.A complex sentence contains one main (or principal) clause and one or more dependent (or subordinate) clause, with a connective word denoting the relation between the two parts. The dependent clause may play the part of a subject, an object, a predicative, an attribute, or an adverbial in the main clause. As a rule, the major idea is expressed in the main clause and the idea or ideas of lesser importance in the subordinate clauses. (从句)A compound-complex sentence contains at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clause-a combination of a compound and a complex sentence.Short simple sentences are often used to make emphatic or important statements.Long complex sentences express complex ideas clearly and accurately, for they have room for all kinds of modifiers (修饰语).3. Loose, Periodic, and Balanced Sentences 松散句 圆周句 对偶句Form a rhetorical(修辞)point of view, sentences are loose, periodic, or balanced. A loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information; in other words, it puts first things first, and lets the readers known what it is mainly about when they have read the first few words. The reverse arrangement makes arrangement makes a periodic piridik sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. The readers do not know what it is mainly about until they finish reading it.Loose sentences are easier, simple, more natural and direct; periodic sentences are more complex, emphatic, formal, or literary.When a sentence contains two parallel clauses similar in structure but contrasted in meaning, it is a balanced sentenced.Balanced sentences are impressive because of the contrast, and pleasing to hear because of the rhythm.4. Short and Long Sentences (短句和长句)Short sentences are usually emphatic, whereas(然而) long sentences are capable of expressing complex ideas with precision(准确的), because it many contain many modifiers. Short sentences are suitable for the presentation of important facts and ideas, and long sentences for the explanation of views and theories, or the description of things with many details.Effective Sentences (有效的句子)1. Unity (一致性)Unity is the first quality of an effective sentence. A unified sentence expresses a single complete thought. It does not contain ideas that are not closely related, nor does it express a thought that is not complete by itself.2. Coherencekhrns(连贯性)Coherence means clear and reasonable connection between parts.It is not coherent if it has (错误类型如下：)fault parallel constructions (not parallel in form 平行结构错误)pronouns with ambiguous reference(代词指代不清楚)dangling or misplaced modifiers(修饰语与被修饰语关系不明确)confusing shifts in person and number, or in voice, tense, and mood(人称、数、语态、时态、或语气上混乱).3. Concisenessknsasns(简洁性)Repetition is sometimes necessary for emphasis, but unnecessary repetition, either of the same words or of different words with the same meaning, should be avoided. 错误类型：unnecessary repetitione.g. In my opinion, I think your plan is feasible. (F) In my opinion, your plan is feasible. (R) I think your plan is feasible. (R)具体例子详见书 P48Conciseness can sometimes be achieved by changing the sentence structure (改变句子结构).4. Emphasis (强调性)1). Emphatic sentences (整句强调)Such sentences may be emphasized in the following ways:Short sentence (短句). It has been mentioned that short sentences are more emphatic than long ones, especially at the beginning or end of a paragraph, or in the midst of long sentences.Sentence fragments (不完整句). They also called one-number sentences(单一成分句). They are emphatic because they contain only the few words that express the main idea.Inverted sentences (倒装句).They are emphatic because their unusual word order draws the readers attention.Parallel constructions and balanced sentences (平行结构和对称句). For examples see the section on “Types of Sentences.”Periodic sentences (圆周句). Their climactic word order makes them emphatic. For example see “Types of Sentences.”Imperative and exclamatory sentence (祈使句和感叹句). They are naturally emphatic.Rhetorical questions (修辞问句或反问句). They are questions in form but emphatic statements in meaning.Negative-positive statements (否定-肯定陈述句). They first point out what is not the truth, and the