生产和业务 —— 一个透视 毕业论文外文翻译.doc

英文文献1：production and operations, a perspectiveelwood spencer buffasome say that the postindustrial society has already been attained in the untied states. the economy has the capability to produce everything needed by everyone and is indeed sometimes referred to as a surplus economy. they say that the physical production of goods and services in adequate qualities can be assumed, and therefore we must concentrate our attention on the problems of using leisure time effectively so that we will not be good bored with good life available for all. if the previous statements are true, then why be concerned with production management? the answer is that, if we are going to allocate a substantial fraction of our national effort toward the goals alluded to above, we must either make the production machine work smoothly, effectively, and even more abundantly, or in fact we must give up some of our physical product in order to meet the objectives of some of new goals. however, the two objectives are inter-twined because an attack on social and ecological problems necessarily depends in some measure on the capabilities of the economic system. also, some of the methods of analysis used in production and operations management and operations research are valid mechanisms to study and solve the other problems.most national planners seem to be assuming that we can have both a high standard of life for all as well as allocate an increasing fraction of our effort toward the solution of our social and ecological problems. their faith is perhaps justified by the extraordinary progress and performance made in the analysis, design, and operations of productive systems in the past fifteen to twenty years. it has become clear that many phases of productive systems can be automated, that many important areas of decision can be reduced to automatic rules, and that computers can become process controllers.productive systems a crucial role in modern societyit would be difficult to overemphasize the crucial role effective productive systems play in modern society and in our life style. indeed, the stamp developed economy carries with it the image of large, highly organized, specialized, mechanized, efficient productive systems. on the other hand, the term underdeveloped economy includes the image of small, handicraft, inefficient productive systems powered mainly by the muscles of men and beasts. this contrast of image is, of course, too simple an explanation for the difference between developed and underdeveloped economies. transforming the nature of productive systems in an underdeveloped economy would not by itself create a developed one. nevertheless, a modern society with all of its attributes of material wealth is not possible without its characteristic productive systems.as a matter of fact, it is unfortunate that we make the association between large output per man hour and a thrifty, industrious, hardworking people with the reverse personal characteristics assigned to low output per man hour situations. individuals in a economy typified by low output per man hour may actually work harder in a physical sense because of the absence of mechanization to accomplish the heaviest tasks.production economics a problem of cost balanceit is also true that the high output per man hour economy is thought of as being efficient while its opposite is thought of as being inefficient. but production efficiency is a relative term meaning, essentially, “how effectively we employ the appropriate available resources (input) for a given unit of output.” thus, in developed economies costs of machinery and equipment are relatively low and labor costs are relatively high reflecting the generally high output per man hour of workers in that economy. in underdeveloped economies the reverse relative costs are generally true. (the cost of raw materials may be high or low in either situation depending on a complex of factors.) therefore, an efficient productive system in the developed economy is on which uses mechanization to a great extent and relatively little labor to yield a minimum combined cost of capital, labor, and raw material per unit of output.for the identical product produced in an underdeveloped economy, an efficient production system would reverse the relative amounts of capital, labor and raw materials. both systems could be efficient if they minimized the resource inputs per unit of output. this is an important point to understand about the effective design and operation of productive systems. we are not always attempting to employ the most sophisticated mechanized or automated technique known. rather, we are attempting to employ the best balance of resources in each situation. thus, even in the united states economy, a system designed for a relatively small output will ordinarily emphasize the use of labor as an input compared to capital. productive systems conversion to useful products or conversion to pollution?productive systems have been commonly thought of as mechanisms for converting some sort of raw material to something useful. in the process, of course, there are normally wasters but in the past very little attention has been paid to them. the emphasis was on the useful product and wastes were disposed of in the cheapest possible way dumped into rivers and streams or into the atmosphere. only recently have began to realize that we may be fouling our own nests.today, socially conscious managers realize that the production function must include the processing of wastes to the point that they are benign or in themselves useful, rather than hazardous or even lethal. waste conversion is a part of the production process and must be included in our conceptual framework.第8页 共41页英文文献1中文翻译：生产和业务 一个透视有人说，美国已经达到了后工业化的社会。这个经济具有生产每个人所需的一切东西的能力，有时甚至被称为过剩经济。他们说，既然物质生产已能提供足够数量的商品和劳务，那么，我们必须把我们的注意力集中在生态学，社会正义，教育等问题，以及有效地使用闲暇时间以便我们不致对人人都能得到的这种美好生活感到厌烦的问题上。如果上面说法是正确的话，那为什么还要考虑生产管理呢？回答是，如果我们把相当大一部分的国民力量投入上述目标中去的话，我们就必须或者使生产机构工作得很顺利，很有效率，甚至更充分一些；或者不得不实际上放弃一些物质产品，以便满足一些新的目标。可是，这两类目标是交织在一起的。因为，要着手解决社会和生态的问题，在某种程度上必须取决于经济系统的能力。而且，生产和业务管理以及运筹学所应用的一些分析方法也正是研究和解决其他问题的有效方法。大多数国民计划工作人员倾向于认为，我们既能够使用所有的人有高标准的生活，又能够拿出日益增多的力量去解决我们的社会和生态问题。在过去的15到20年中，我们在生产系统的分析、设计和运行方面所取得的出色进展和成绩，也许证明他们的信念是正确的。显然，生产系统的许多方面能够实现自动化，许多重要的决策领域能够应用自动化的规则，而电子计算机能够成为生产过程的控制者。生产系统在现代社会中的决定性作用有效的生产系统在现代社会和我们的生活方式中所起的决定性作用，是怎么强调也不过分的。的确，发达经济的特征就是规模大、组织程度高、专业化、机械化、高效率的生产系统。另一方面，不发达经济一词就意味着其特征为以人力和畜力为主要动力、规模小、手工操作、低效率的生产系统。当然，用这种特征的对比来解释发达经济同不发达经济的区别，未免太简单化了。仅只改变一个不发达经济的生产系统的性质，并不能使它成为一个发达经济。但是，一个现代社会和它在物质方面的一切属性，同它特有的生产系统是分不开的。令人遗憾的是，我们实际上把每个人/时的高产量都归因于人们的节俭、勤奋、工作艰苦，而把每个人/时的低产量都归因于个人方面相反的特性。事实上，在每个人/时产量低的经济中，由于缺乏机械去完成最繁重的任务，人们在体力方面的工作更为艰苦。生长经济学成本平衡问题每个人/时产量高的经济被看成是效率高，而相反的情况则被看成是效率低，这也是相对的。但生产效率是一个相对意义的术语，其意义是，“我们使用适当的可利用资源（投入）来生产一定单位数量的产品，其效果究竟有多大。”因此，在发达经济中，相对来说，机器设备的成本低而劳动成本高，这反映了在发达经济中工人每人/时的产量一般较高。在不发达经济中，相对成本的情况通常是颠倒过来的。（至于原料成本的高低，则不论在发达经济或不发达经济中，都取决于复杂的因素。）因此，发达经济中高效率的生产系统机械化程度较高而劳动力的使用较少，这就能使每个单位产品的资本、劳动和原料所构成的联合成本最低。不发达经济要生产出同样的产品，效率高的生产系统就要把投入的资本和劳动的相对数量颠倒过来，以便由资本、劳动和原料所构成的联合成本最低。假如这两种生产系统都能把单位产品的资源投入减小到最低限度，那么，它们就可以算作是效率高的。这是理解生产系统的有效设计和运转的非常重要一点。我们并不是始终追求使用已知的最复杂的机械化或自动化技术，而是试图在每种情况下使用各种资源得到最佳平衡。所以，即使在美国经济中，为较少产量而设计的生产系统通常强调使用劳力的投入而不强调资本的投入。生产系统产出有用的产品，还是产出污染？人们通常认为生产系统就是把某些原材料转化为一些有用产品的机构。在这过程中，当然会有废物产生，但过去对它们却很少注意。人们强调的是有用的产品，而对废物则尽可能以最便宜的办法来处理倒进江河或排入大气中。只是到了最近，我们才开始意识到，我们可能正在污染着我们的作息之处。今天，有社会意识的管理人员认识到，生产只能必须包括废物的加工处理，使之有益于健康，或本身是有用的东西，而不是成为危险的、甚至是致命的东西。废物处理是生产过程的一个组成部分，必须包括在我们的基本概念之中。英文文献2：shampoo consumer reportwe saw several recommendations for one particular salon brand; bumble and bumble is a high-profile salon line (now owned by estee lauder) that banks its reputation on use by models and celebrities. as a result, its pricy, but reviewers say that most of the shampoos have gentle, effective formulas that live up to the marketing claims. two of the sources we found say that bumble and bumbles alojoba shampoo (*est. $17 for 8 ounces) works well for normal-to-very dry hair of any thickness, and wont cause buildup. however, in the test reports we read, much less expensive shampoos like clairols herbal essence (*est. $4 for 12 ounces) are just as effective. some consumers may prefer the smell, feel or cache of salon formulas, issues that are tangential to cleaning ability.paula begoun, in her comprehensive book, dont go shopping for hair-care products without me, evaluates over 130 brands of hair-care products, with in-depth analysis of ingredients. she notes that many brands, including the top-selling clairol herbal essences, have nearly identical formulas across their shampoo product lines, except for some differences in fragrance and plant extracts, which do nothing for hair, but may irritate the scalp. begoun and other reviewers agree that an anti-residue shampoo, like neutrogena anti-residue (*est. $6 for 6 ounces) , should be used at least once a week to remove buildup, especially if you use a volumizing shampoo; these coat each hair with a film to make it appear fuller. reviewers pick clairol herbal essences most often among lower-priced drugstore shampoos. it comes in a variety of formulas, including moisturizing, clarifying/residue removal, replenishing for dry/damaged hair, volumizing, and anti-dandruff. contributors posting to epinions say that theyre generally pleased with the moisturizing and clarifying formulas, but that the volumizing and replenishing formulas dont work as well as they had expected. experts say the anti-dandruff formula contains salicylic acid to exfoliate the scalp, but the ph of the shampoo is too high for it to be very effective for those struggling with dandruff.experts say neutrogena anti-residue shampoo (*est. $6 for 6 ounces) is a simple shampoo that wont cause buildup, and which is good for all hair types. this formula has stood the test of time since 1980. experts recommend using an anti-residue shampoo once a week, especially if you regularly use a thickening shampoo, which deposits a film on each hair to make it appear thicker. unless these film-forming agents are periodically removed, they build up and cause hair to look flat and feel heavy.head & shoulders (*est. $5 for 14 ounces) is among the least expensive brands that contain the anti-fungal zinc pyrithione, which combats the organisms that cause dandruff. head & shoulders isnt always effective, and those with severe dandruff may need a prescription-strength formula from a dermatologist or a shampoo with coal tar, like neutrogena t/gel. but experts say head & shoulders causes the least amount of irritating side effects of store brands.neutrogena t/gel shampoo (*est. $11 for 16 ounces) is an option for people who cant get dandruff relief from anti-fungal shampoos like head & shoulders. neutrogena contains coal tar, which slows the creation of skin cells, making it especially suited to combating scalp psoriasis and seborrheic dermatitis. experts warn that coal tar shampoos can be very drying to the hair, and to use them only as often as is necessary to control symptoms.denorex (*est. $5 for 12 ounces) is another dandruff shampoo, but experts say its too harsh for many people, since it contains a drying agent sodium c14-16 olefin sulfonate. like clairol herbal essences dandruff formula, denorex contains a 3% salicylic acid to combat dandruff, but the drying elements offset any benefit of the salicylic acid (which helps loosen dandruff flakes from the scalp) according to paula begoun on her web site, cosmeticsc.pert plus (*est. $4 for 25 ounces) was the first combination shampoo/conditioner to hit the market in 1985, and now, many other brands have joined in offering this convenient option. experts say combination products are best for normal to slightly dry hair of normal thickness, and short hair. because the conditioning agents can build up on hair, its best to also use a clarifying or anti-residue shampoo every few times you shampoo.johnson & johnson was the first company to patent the use of extremely gentle cleansing agents that arent irritating to babys eyes. reviewers say johnson & johnsons baby shampoo, original (*est. $4 for 15 ounces) is a great shampoo for babies and children, but its too mild for adult hair, especially if you use styling products.important features: shampooexperts say the following about shampoo products: shampoos do good work in their primary job, cleaning hair. any benefits beyond that are suspect, and many claims on the packaging have no basis in fact. almost all salon lines include products that fall short on advertised claims. for example, while color-enhancing shampoos may otherwise be good hair products, none have actually been shown to extend the life of hair dyes. the same holds true for brands that claim to protect hair from the sun. the only part of the shampoo label thats regulated by the food and dr