英文 2024年全球科技创新合作促进发展

UNITEDNATIONSCONFERENCEONTRADEANDDEVELOPMENT

Globalcooperationinscience,technologyandinnovationfor

development

Globalcooperationinscience,technologyandinnovationfordevelopment

©2024,UnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment

Thefindings,interpretationsandconclusionsexpressedhereinarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheUnitedNationsoritsofficialsorMemberStates.

ThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialonanymapinthisworkdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheUnitedNationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.

MentionofanyfirmorlicensedprocessdoesnotimplytheendorsementoftheUnitedNations.

Photocopiesandreproductionsofexcerptsareallowedwithpropercredits.

Thisdocumenthasnotbeenformallyedited.

UNCTAD/DTL/INF/2024/1

1

Globalcooperationinscience,technologyandinnovationfordevelopment

Acknowledgements

Thispublicationwasprepared,undertheoveralldirectionofShamikaNSirimanne,DirectoroftheUNCTADDivisiononTechnologyandLogistics,byateamcomprisingWaiKitSiTou,AntonioVezzani,TommasoPierangeliandSoumitaRoy,withtheguidanceofAngelGonzález-Sanz,HeadoftheTechnology,InnovationandKnowledgeDevelopmentBranch.

Thepublicationbenefitedsignificantlyfromdiscussionsandinputsduringthe2023–2024meetingoftheintersessionalpaneloftheCommissiononScienceandTechnologyforDevelopmentoftheUnitedNations(6to7November2023)andthetwenty-seventhsessionoftheCommissiononScienceandTechnologyforDevelopment,(15to19April2024).Detailedinputscanbeconsultedat

/meeting/commission-science-and-technology-development

-twenty-seventh-session.

UNCTADgratefullyacknowledgesthevaluablecontributionsprovidedbytheGovernmentsofBelize,Brazil,Burundi,Cameroon,China,Cuba,Ecuador,theGambia,Hungary,Japan,Latvia,Peru,thePhilippines,Portugal,theRussianFederation,SouthAfrica,Türkiye,theUnitedRepublicofTanzaniaandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica,aswellastheEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific(ESCAP),EconomicandSocialCommissionforWesternAsia(ESCWA),InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(IAEA),InternationalTelecommunicationUnion(ITU),UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO),UnitedNationsOfficeforOuterSpaceAffairs(UNOOSA),WorldFoodProgramme(WFP),WorldTourismOrganization(UNWTO)andWorldTradeOrganization(WTO).

CoverdesignanddesktoppublishingwereundertakenbytheUNCTADCommunicationandExternalRelationsSection.MalouPasinosandXiahuiXinofUNCTADprovidedadministrativesupport.

Coverimage:©AdobeStock

2

Globalcooperationinscience,technologyandinnovationfordevelopment

Note

WithintheUNCTADDivisiononTechnologyandLogistics,theTechnologyandInnovationPolicyResearchSectioncarriesoutpolicy-orientedanalyticalworkontheimpactofinnovationandnewandemergingtechnologiesonsustainabledevelopment,withaparticularfocusontheopportunitiesandchallengesfordevelopingcountries.Itisresponsibleforthisstudy,whichseekstoaddressissuesinscience,technologyandinnovationthataretopicalandimportantfordevelopingcountries,andtodosoinacomprehensivewaywithanemphasisonpolicy-relevantanalysisandconclusions.TheTechnologyandInnovationPolicyResearchSectionsupportstheintegrationofSTIinnationaldevelopmentstrategiesandinbuildingupSTIpolicy-makingcapacityindevelopingcountries.

Inthisstudy,thetermscountry/economyrefer,asappropriate,toterritoriesorareas.Thedesignationsofcountrygroupsareintendedsolelyforstatisticaloranalyticalconvenienceanddonotnecessarilyexpressajudgementaboutthestageofdevelopmentreachedbyaparticularcountryorareainthedevelopmentprocess.Unlessotherwiseindicated,themajorcountrygroupingsusedinthisreportfollowtheclassificationoftheUnitedNationsStatisticalOffice.Theseare:

Developedcountries:themembercountriesoftheOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(otherthanChile,Colombia,CostaRica,Mexico,theRepublicofKoreaandTürkiye),plustheEuropeanUnionmembercountriesthatarenotOECDmembers(Bulgaria,Croatia,Cyprus,Lithuania,MaltaandRomania),plusAndorra,Liechtenstein,MonacoandSanMarino.CountrieswitheconomiesintransitionrefertothoseofSouth-EastEuropeandtheCommonwealthofIndependentStates.Developingeconomies,ingeneral,arealltheeconomiesthatarenotspecifiedabove.Forstatisticalpurposes,thedataforChinadonotincludethosefortheHongKongSpecialAdministrativeRegionofChina(HongKong,China),MacaoSpecialAdministrativeRegionofChina(Macao,China)orTaiwanProvinceofChina.AnExcelfilewiththemaincountrygroupingsusedcanbedownloadedfromUNCTADstatat:http://unctadstat./EN/Classifications.html.

Referencestosub-SaharanAfricaincludeSouthAfricaunlessotherwiseindicated.

ReferencesinthetexttotheUnitedStatesaretotheUnitedStatesofAmericaandthosetotheUnitedKingdomaretotheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland.

Theterm“dollar”($)referstoUnitedStatesdollar,unlessotherwisestated.

Decimalsandpercentagesdonotnecessarilyadduptototalsbecauseofrounding.

3

Globalcooperationinscience,technologyandinnovationfordevelopment

Tableofcontents

Acknowledgements 2

Note 3

I.Introduction 7

II.KeyelementsforSTIdevelopment 9

A.StrategicPlanning 11

B.STIEnablers 12

C.ResearchandDevelopment 13

D.Innovation 15

E.Summary 16

III.StatusofglobalSTIcooperation 18

A.StrategicPlanning 19

1.InclusiveinternationalSTIagenda 19

2.Multilateraltechnologyforesightandassessmentsystem 22

3.Supportiveinternationalrules 23

B.STIEnablers 24

1.Digitalinfrastructure&interoperability 24

2.Capacity-buildingactivities 26

C.R&D 28

1.Researchfunding 28

2.Internationalresearchcollaboration 30

3.Alternativemodesoftechnologycreationanddistribution 32

D.Innovation 33

1.Technologyandknowledgetransfer 33

2.Testbeds 36

3.Incubatorsandaccelerators 37

E.ODAforSTI 39

F.Summary 41

IV.TheroleoftheCSTDinfacilitatingglobalSTIcooperation 43

4

Globalcooperationinscience,technologyandinnovationfordevelopment

V.Conclusionandrecommendations 46

1.ReinforcetheeffortstowardbuildinganinclusiveglobalSTIagenda 47

2.DevelopamultilateralSTIforesightandassessmentsystem 47

3.Buildenablingdigitalandskillenvironments 47

4.FosterinvestmentinSTIandpublic-privatepartnerships 48

5.Strengthenresearchnetworksandcollaborationamongdifferentactors 48

6.Promotetechnologyandknowledgetransfer 49

References 50

Boxes

Box1

Cooperationintechnologyforesightforassessment 12

Box2

ASYCUDA,technologyandknowledgetransferfortrade

facilitation 35

Tables

Table1

Areasofglobalcollaborationunderthefourkeyelements

forSTIdevelopment 17

Table2

AframeworkfortheInternationalSTIagenda 19

Table3

SummaryofexamplesonregionalandglobalSTIcooperation 41

Table4

Listofprioritythemesdiscussedinthepastfive

sessionsoftheCSTD 44

5

Globalcooperationinscience,technologyandinnovationfordevelopment

Figures

Figure1

Internationallinkagesforthekeyelementsofanational

innovationsystem 10

Figure2

Patentsfiledbyresidentsvs.non-residents(%)andtotal

bycountryincomegroups 15

Figure3

ShareofSTIintotalODAbymainpurposecategory 39

Figure4

ShareofSTIintotalODAvs.shareofR&DoverGDP,

top10officialdonorsin2021 40

6

©Shutterstock

I.Introduction

ThegrowingcomplexityandrapidevolutionofnewtechnologiesunderscoretheneedforglobalcollaborationinScience,Technology,andInnovation(STI)toaddresspressingglobalchallengesandadvancetheSustainableDevelopmentGoals.

Scientificresearchincreasinglytakes

placeamongglobalteamsofresearchers,creatingnetworksthatextendbeyond

nationalinstitutionsandsingledisciplines(Wagneretal.,2015;UNCTAD,2018).Thegrowingcomplexityofnewtechnologies,theirfastpaceofchange,andthemassivetransformationunleashedbyrecent

wavesofinnovationhighlighttheurgencyofacollaborativeapproachtoScience,TechnologyandInnovation(STI).

Indeed,inviewofthescaleofglobalchallengesandthegreatpotentialof

STItodeliverresponsestothem,global

cooperationinSTIiskeytoachievingtheinternationalcommunity’scommitmenttoleavenoonebehind.Ashighlightedbythe17thSustainableDevelopmentGoal(SDG),

globalpartnerships,especiallyaround

STI,areimportantvehiclesformobilizing

andoptimizingresourcesavailableamonggovernments,businesses,academia,civilsocietiesandotherstakeholderstoensureprogressandlong-termsustainabilityin

allcountries,particularlydevelopingones

(UnitedNations,2023a).Specifically,SDG17stressestheimportanceofknowledgesharingthroughNorth-South,South-SouthandinternationalcooperationinSTI,aswellasthedevelopment,transfer,disseminationanddiffusionofenvironmentallysound

technologiestodevelopingcountriesonfavourabletermsandtheenhanceduseofenablingtechnologieslikeinformationandcommunicationtechnologies.

7

Global

cooperationinSTIiskeytoachievingtheinternationalcommunity’scommitmenttoleaveno

onebehind.

Globalcooperationinscience,technologyandinnovationfordevelopment

Nowadays,thebenefitsoffrontier

technologiesarenotdistributedequallyamongdevelopedanddeveloping

countries,andthegapisevenwidening(UNCTAD,2023a).1DevelopedcountriesareseizingmostoftheopportunitiesofthetechnologicalrevolutionunleashedbyIndustry4.0,ArtificialIntelligence

(AI)andgreentechnologies,puttingdevelopingcountriesatriskofbeingleftbehindashappenedinpreviouswavesoftechnologicalinnovation.

Strengtheningthenationalcapacitiesof

developingcountriesinSTIistherefore

integraltoachievingthe2030Agendafor

SustainableDevelopmentthatconformstotheinternationalcommunity’sroadmapforaprosperousandsustainablefutureforall.Respondingtosuchaninclusiveagenda

willrequirecollaborativeeffortstoacceleratethedevelopmentofthenationalinnovationsystems(NIS)ofcountrieswherethese

arestillemergingsothattrulyglobalSTInetworkscanthriveanddeliverresults.

Theinternationalcommunityhas

acrucialroletoplayinsupporting

developingcountriestostrengthen

nationalcapacitiesinSTIandtofacilitatetheirparticipationinglobalscience

andtechnologynetworks,whicharecurrentlydominatedbyafewstronglyinterconnectedorganizations(Ribeiroetal.,2018).Theseeffortswouldhelp

strengthenthenationalinnovationsystemsofdevelopingcountriesandguarantee

thattheglobalresearchandinnovationagendameetstheirinterestsandneeds.

Inthisregard,thispaperexplores

waystoimproveSTIcooperationattheglobalandregionallevelstoscaleuptheimpactofexistingexperiencesonkeydevelopmentchallenges.

Therestofthepaperisstructuredas

follows.SectionIIprovidesabriefoverviewofthefourkeyelementsforSTIdevelopmentthatservesasaframeworkforamore

in-depthanalysisofinternationalSTI

collaboration.SectionIIIexaminesthestatusofglobalSTIcooperationundereachofthefourelementsforSTIdevelopment,focusingonresearchanddevelopment(R&D)

thatiscrucialfortheuse,adoptionand

adaptationoftechnologiesandinnovations.Itdiscussescollaborationmechanisms,

lessonslearnedandgoodpracticesof

differentinitiatives,asabackgroundto

formulaterecommendationsonhowto

strengthenglobalcooperationinSTIfor

sustainabledevelopment.SectionIVreviewsthecontributionoftheCSTDinfacilitating

globalSTIcooperationandhighlightsitsroleincoordinatingandimpartingdirectionalitytointernationalSTIcollaboration.SectionVconcludesandprovidesrecommendationsfortheconsiderationofMemberStates,theinternationalcommunityandtheCSTD.

1TheUNCTAD’sTechnologyandInnovationReport2023examines17frontiertechnologies,definedasnewandrapidlydevelopingtechnologiesthattakeadvantageofdigitalizationandconnectivity,whicharedividedintothreebroadcategories:(i)Industry4.0frontiertechnologieswhichincludeartificialintelligence(AI),InternetofThings(IoT),bigdata,blockchain,5G,3Dprinting,roboticsanddronetechnology,(ii)greenfrontiertechnologieswhichencompasssolarphotovoltaics,concentratedsolarpower,biofuels,biogasandbiomass,windenergy,greenhydrogenandelectricvehicles,and(iii)otherfrontiertechnologieswhichcomprehendnanotechnologyandgeneediting.

8

II.KeyelementsforSTIdevelopment

Thenationalinnovationsystem(NIS)approachhelpscapturingthecomplexfactorsshapingacountry’sinnovationcapabilities,andcanhelphighlightingcross-borderconnectionsandknowledgeflowsalong4keyelements:strategicplanning,STIenablers,R&Dandinnovation.

Thenationalinnovationsystem(NIS)

approachhaslongrepresentedaframeworktoconceptualizeandidentifythemany

factorscontributingtothedeterminationoftheinnovativecapabilitiesofacountry.GiventheincreasinginterconnectednessofSTIactivitiesatthegloballevel,itis

importanttoconsidertheNISapproachfromaglobalperspective,emphasizing

theneeds,capacitiesandinterconnectionsbeyondnationalactors.Thispaperfocusesonfourkeyelementscharacterizing

theSTIsystemanditsdevelopment;

theseelementsallowustohighlighttheconnectionsandknowledgeflowsthatcrossnationalboundaries(Figure1).

©Shutterstock

9

Globalcooperationinscience,technologyandinnovationfordevelopment

Figure1

Internationallinkagesforthekeyelementsofanationalinnovationsystem

Internationalpartnerships

StrategicPlanning

(Government)

Strengths,

weaknesses,needs

Bilateral&

multilateral

projects

R&D

(Differentactors)

Scientific&technicalknowledge

Trade,global

valuechains,

internationalfairs

Innovation

(Market)

Technical&businessknowledge

NationalBoundaries

Actions

Information&knowledgeflows

GlobalSTItrends&foresight

Technologyassessment

Standardsetting

Bestpractices

Linkages:

Enablers

Note:Thefigureisnotmeanttoprovideexhaustivecoverageofalltheinteractionsandactorsofanationalinnovationsystembuttohighlightthemaincomponentsandtheirexternalrelationships.

Source:UNCTAD.

Athoughtful considerationofthestrengthsandweaknesses ofthenational innovation systemwith respectto theglobal trendsinSTI willcontribute tosettingthe foundations ofsuccessful strategicplanning.

Thedynamicinteractionsamongthefour

keyelementsandthestakeholdersinvolvedrequireconstantfeedbackandrevision

accordingtothestateofthescience,technologyandinnovationlandscape.

Thegovernmentispartofthewidersettingthatreferstotheinstitutionscontributing

tocompetencebuildingandshaping

humaninteractionsinSTI(Lundvall,2016).Inparticular,theoveralldirectioncanbe

formulatedthroughstrategicplanning

accompaniedbythenecessaryinstruments,suchasframeworks,policies,guidelines,

standardsandregulations.Forexample,the“GhanaSTIforSDGsRoadmap”

definesvision,targets,strategies,roles

andresponsibilities,aswellasmonitoringandevaluationsystemstoacceleratetheachievementoftheSDGsprioritizedbytheGovernment(MinistryofEnvironment,Science,TechnologyandInnovation,

Ghana,2022).Athoughtfulconsiderationofthestrengthsandweaknessesofthe

nationalinnovationsystemwithrespect

totheglobaltrendsinSTIwillcontributetosettingthefoundationsofsuccessful

strategicplanning.Forexample,the

recentSTIPreviewofAngolamapsand

benchmarkstheinnovationecosystem,

includingentrepreneurshipandnewdigitaltechnologies,bycombiningdataanalysisandinterviewswithrepresentativesoftheGovernment,theprivatesector,academiaandspecializedinstitutions(UNCTAD,

2023b).AsolidfoundationofstrategicplanningisbasedonacomprehensiveoverviewofthestateandneedsoftheSTIelements,whichincludetangible(physicalanddigital)andintangible

(humanandknowledge)resources.

10

Globalcooperationinscience,technologyandinnovationfordevelopment

Inthisrespect,itisusefultodistinguishR&D(closelylinkedtoscienceandtechnology)

fromInnovation.Theformercanbemappedintotheconceptofinvention,whichisthe

resultofdifferenteconomicandsocial

processeswithrespecttoinnovation

(Schumpeter,1939).Aninventioncan

bedefinedasauniqueornoveldevice,

method,composition,ideaorprocess;

assuch,itisassociatedwithanactof

creation.Innovation,instead,isthepracticalimplementationofideasthatresultinthe

introductionofnewgoodsorservicesinthemarketorimprovementsoftheiroffering;assuchitisassociatedwithcommercialization.

R&Dincludesbasicandappliedresearch,aswellasexperimentalorincremental

developmentandcanbeperformedby

universities,researchinstitutionsorfirms.Innovationismainlyperformedbyfirms,

anditisrelatedtogoodsandservices,

productionprocesses,marketingstrategiesandtheoverallorganizationofbusinesses.Innovationisaffectedbyacountry’s

strengthinscienceandtechnology,butitalsodependsontheindustrialand

organizationalcontextinwhichfirms

areinserted(MorrisonandPietrobelli,

2007).Thecoreoftheinnovationsystemisrepresentedbyfirmsandknowledge

infrastructures,anditiscrucialtosupport

thefirms’potentialfordeveloping,absorbingorusingnewtechnologies(Lundvall,2016).

Inthefollowingsubsections,thefourkeyelementsforSTIdevelopmentwillbe

discussedinmoredetailtohighlighttheir

specificitiesintermsofprocessesand

interactionsinternalandexternaltothe

NIS.ThiswillsetthegroundtoreviewandinterpretthestatusofinternationalSTI

cooperationpresentedinSectionIII.

A.StrategicPlanning

Settingspecificandachievablegoalsisthefirststeptowardssuccess.NationalstrategiestomeettheSDGscanbesetthroughmulti-yearplans,whichshouldincludeSTIasadriverofchange.

Awell-informedplanningforSTI

requiresatleasttwocomponents:i)anunderstandingoftheglobalSTItrends;andii)aclearoverviewofthecountry’sstrengthsandweaknessesinSTI.

Inrecentyears,therehasbeena

multiplicationoftechnologicalforesight

exercisesaimingtolookintothelonger-

termfutureofSTI.Theseexercisesrequireresourcesandknowledgeaboutfrontier

technologiesfromscientific,technological

andsocietalpointsofview.Often,small

andlessdevelopedcountriesdonothavethenecessarycriticalmasstoengagein

thesetypesofexercisesandmayfindit

difficulttounderstandtheimplicationsofthemultipleexistingassessments.Coordinatedeffortsattheinternationallevelcanmake

senseofthedifferentforecastingand

foresightexercisestosupportthestrategicplanningoflessadvancedcountries.

Moreover,theacceleratedtechnological

changemakesitparticularlychallenging

tokeepupwiththelatestandupcoming

technologicaldevelopments.Forexample,theastonishingpaceofdevelopmentand

applicationofgenerativeAIincreatingnewcontent,includingtext,image,audioand

video,raisesconcernsaboutthespreadofmisinformation,intellectualpropertyrights

(IPRs)infringement,dataprivacyviolation

andamplificationofexistingbias(UNCTAD,2023c).Theinternationaldimensionof

thesechallengescallsforquickresponsestodealwithcomplexmattersthatmay

necessitatethedevelopmentofspecific

normativeand/orinstitutionalframeworks.Thisrequiresasharedunderstandingof

theimplicationsofcurrenttechnological

changetobuildconsensusonacommon

visionthatreflectstheneedsandaspirationsofallcountries.Globalcooperation

supportingthesharingofbestpracticesandlessonslearned,aswellastheresultsoftechnologicalforesightexercises

playsakeyroleinthisregard(Box1).

11

Globalcooperationinscience,technologyandinnovationfordevelopment

Box1

Cooperationintechnologyforesightforassessment

Technologyforesightprovidesaframeworktoidentifyandassesschallengesandopportunitiesrelatedtonewtechnologiesandsupportpolicymakersandstakeholdersintheimplementationofthe2030agendaforsustainabledevelopment.

Duringthe19thAnnualsessionoftheCSTD(2016),itwashighlightedtheimportanceofundertakingsystemicresearchonnewtrendsinscience,technologyandinnovation,aswellasininformationandcommunicationstechnologiesandtheirimpactondevelopment.

Inparticular,amongotherpoints,itwasrecommendedto:

•undertakestrategicforesightinitiativesonglobalandregionalchallengesatregularintervalsandcooperatetowardstheestablishmentofamappingsystemtoreviewandsharetechnologyforesightoutcomesmakinguseofexistingregionalmechanisms,andincollaborationwithrelevantstakeholders;

•usestrategicforesightasaprocesstoencouragestructureddebateamongallstakeholderstowardscreatingasharedunderstandingoflong-termissuesandbuildingconsensusonfuturepolicies;and

•conduct(technology)assessmentsofnationalinnovationsystems,drawingfromforesightexercises,atregularintervals,toidentifyweaknessesofthesystemsandmakeeffectivepolicyinterventionstostrengthentheirweakercomponents,andshareoutcomeswithotherMemberStates.

Source:CSTD19thAnnualSessionResolutiononScience,technologyandinnovationfordevelopment.

Technologyassessmentexercises,drawingfrominternationalexperiences,help

policymakersandstakeholdersidentify

specificchallengesandopportunitiesforacountry,whicharestronglyrelatedtothestateoftheNIS.Awhole-of-governmentapproachisessentialtoensurethatnewSTIinstrumentsandtargetsaretailored

tothestrengthsandweaknessesofthe

countryandalignedwithexistingactionsinotherdomains,includingatleastenergy,industryandeducation2toleverage

complementaritiesacrossdifferentpolicyspheres.

B.STIEnablers

Everytechnologicalrevolution

hassethigherrequirementsfor

theinfrastructuressupportingthefunctioningoftheeconomy.

Nowadays,itisnolongeronlyaboutthe

provisionofstableandaffordableelectricityorfunctioningtransportandmobile

networks;thecurrenteconomicparadigmrequiresaffordableinternetconnection

andhighstandardsofbandwidthand

latency(InternationalTelecommunicationUnion,2022).Thediffusionofdigital

technologiesandAIisblurringthe

boundarybetweenthephysicalanddigitalworlds,andtheirintegrationintoscience,technology,andproductionwillstrongly

dependonsupportiveinfrastructure.

2Forinstance,researchshowsthatthedistanceinthestringencyofenvironmentalpolicybetweencountrieshinderstheintensityoftechnologicalcollaborationsinenergy-relatedtechnologies(CorrocherandMancusi,2021).

12

Globalcooperationinscience,technologyandinnovationfordevelopment

Moreover,intangible(humanandknowledge)

resourcesareevenmorecrucialin

today’seconomy(Corradoetal.,2009).

Competenciesandskillsareneededat

alllevels,fromthoserequiredtousenew

applicationsandproductstothoseneededtodevelopnewtechnologiesoradapt

importedonestobetterfitspecificneeds

andconditions.ThedigitalrevolutionmakesmasteringSTEM3skills(frommathematicsandstatisticstocodinganddataanalytics)crucialtoempowertheworkforcetoadapttotechnologicaladvances(UNCTAD,2018).

Thecompetenciesneededvaryacross

sectors,countriesandlevelsofindustrial

development,thuseducationalpolicies

shouldbecalibratedaccordingtocountries’readinesstoengageandbenefitfromSTI

development.4Intermsofhumancapital,

theskillsnecessarytoadapttohybridworkenvironments(e.g.,on-siteandremote

workersandcontractors)oftenrequire

multipleexpertise,suchasinterpersonal

communication,collaborationandemotionalintelligence(Marr,2022;WEF,2016).

Importantly,thelackofappropriateskill

setsingovernmentdirectlyresultsin

insufficientrepresentationoftechnical

andanalyticalexpertiseinlegislative

andregulatoryframeworkdevelopment

processes(UNCTAD,2021c),whichmaylimitthecapabilitytoeffectivelydesign

andimplementSTIpolicy.Thisfurther

stressestheproblemofhowtosupportthedevelopmentofcompetencieswithindevelopingcountriesandtheimportanceoftriggeringanupgradingprocessatalllevelsofeducation.Thestrengthening

oftheknowledgebasewillalsoprovide

countrieswiththehumanresourcesto

participateinandprofitfrominternationalSTIcooperation.5Financialandtechnicalassistancearecrucialtosupportthe

developmentofanenablingenvironmentforSTIandtheinternationalcommunityplaysanactiveroleinsupportingcapacity

buildingindevelopingcountries,inparticularfordisadvantagedgroups.Moreover,the

set-upofformalandinformalcollaborationsstrengtheningtheparticipationofdevelopingcountriesininternationalSTInetworks

wouldfacilitateknowledgeflowsandcouldbeevenmorefunctionalforthedevelopmentoftheirSTIcapacities.

C.ResearchandDevelopment

R&Discharacterizedbyahighdegreeofuncertaintyabouttheresultsofa

givenendeavourandbyalong-termhorizon.FundingandexpertisearethetwomajorchallengesforR&D.

R&Dinvolvesadynamicinteractionamongdifferentstakeholders.Itcomprisescreativeandsystematicworkundertakentoincreasethestockofknowledg