大学英语四级阅读理解的篇章段落组织模式

大学英语四级阅读理解的篇章段落组织模式林明金寻找文章或段落的主题是阅读理解中重要的一环节，也是四级阅读理解考查的一个要点。但文章或段落的（supportingsentences/details）所提供的事实、实例或论据才使文章或段落的主题得到充实和丰富。作者一般会采用一定的模式来组织辅助性的细节内容，故把握好作者对细节内容的组织模式对所阅读的内容的理解和记忆极为有益。下面介绍几种基本的篇章段落组织模式：（一）列举法——AdditionorListing（二）过程/程序法——Process（三）类别法——Classification（四）举例法——Example（五）因果法——CauseandEffect.（六）时间顺序法——TimeOrder.（七）比较/对比法——Comparisonand/Contrast.（八）综合法——ACombinationoftheAbove（一）列举法：指对文章或段落的主题或某一观点所提供的细节，作者按照自己喜好的顺序加以排列或罗列。列举法是一种最常见和最简单的一种细节组织模式。例如：[主题句]Waterisessentialforgoodhealth.Itisnecessaryforeveryprocessofthebodylikedigestionandabsorptionoffood.Inaddition,waterhelpscontrolthetemperatureofthebody.Itkeepsthetemperatureat37℃.Wateralsocleansthetissues.此例是一个典型的列举模式：作者用了三个细节来说明本段的主题。作者还在此采用了该模式常见的信号词（inaddition,also）。列举法一些常用的信号词还有：and,too,plus,again,besides,moreover,furthermore,first,second，next,inthesameway,similarly,etc.列举法在四级阅读测试中也很常见，例如（2000年6月）[主题句]Socialsupportcushionsstressinanumberofways.First,friends,relatives,andco-workersmayletusknowthattheyvalueus.Ourself-respectisstrengthenedwhenwefeelacceptedbyothersdespiteourfaultsanddifficulties.Second,otherpeopleoftenprovideuswithinformationalsupport.Theyhelpustodefineandunderstandourproblemsandfindsolutionstothem.Third,wetypicallyfindsocialcompanionshipsupportive.Engaginginleisure-timeactivitieswithothershelpsustomeetoursocialneedswhileatthesametimedistracting(转移...注意力)usfromourworriesandtroubles.Finally,otherpeoplemaygiveusinstrumentalsupportfinancialaid,materialresources,andneededservices--thatreducesstressbyhelpingusresolveandcopewithourproblems.在主题句之后，作者列举了四个方面的细节来论证该主题句。（二）过程/程序法：作者用做事情的一系列步骤的顺序来组织细节，用来说明做某事件的模式，即为过程法。举例如下：[主题句]Changingatireisamatteroffoursimplesteps.First,jackupthesideofthecarhighenoughtocleartheground.Second,carefullyloosenthenutsthatholdthetireandriminplacebyusinglugwrench.Next,removetheflattireandputthesparetireinplace.Nowyouarereadytoputthenutsbackonthewheelandtightenthemwell.此种组织模式在四级阅读测试试题中相当常见。例如：（2000年6月）Longafterthe1998WorldCupwaswon,disappointedfanswerestillcursingthedisputedrefereeing(裁判)decisionsthatdeniedvictorytotheirteam.Aresearcherwasappointed[中心主题]tostudytheperformanceofsometopreferees.Theresearcherorganizedanexperimentaltournament(锦标赛)involvingfouryouthteams.Eachmatchlastedanhour,dividedintothreeperiodsof20minutesduringwhichdifferentrefereeswereincharge.Observersnoteddownthereferees'errors,ofwhichtherewere61overthetournament.Convertedtoastandardmatchof90minutes,eachrefereemadealmost23mistakes,aremarkablyhighnumber.Theresearcherthenstudiedthevideotapestoanalysethematchesindetail.Surprisingly,hefoundthaterrorsweremorelikelywhentherefereeswereclosetotheincident.Whentheofficialsgotitright,theywere,onaverage,17metersawayfromtheaction.Theaveragedistanceinthecaseoferrorswas12meters.Theresearchshowstheoptimum(最佳的)distanceisabout20meters.Therealsoseemedtobeanoptimumspeed.Correctdecisionscamewhentherefereesweremovingataspeedofabout2meterspersecond.Theaveragespeedforerrorswas4meterspersecond.IfFIFA,football'sinternationalrulingbody,wantstoimprovethestandardofrefereeingatthenextWorldCup,[结论]itshouldencouragerefereestokeeptheireyesontheactionfromadistance,ratherthanrushingtokeepupwiththeball,theresearcherargues.HealsosaysthatFIFA'sinsistencethatrefereesshouldretireatage45maybemisguided.Ifkeepingupwiththeactionisnotsoimportant,[结论]theirphysicalconditionislesscritical.这篇短文的细节部分的组织模式即为过程/程序法，作者用了三个步骤：①组织一场实验性的比赛；②记下裁判犯下的错误；③对录像带进行研究。以此来说明主题“(how)tostudytheperformanceofsometopreferees.”并在文章的最后，给出了两个结论。考生应当注意区分列举法和过程/程序法，列举法模式中的顺序可以随意调换，但过程/程序法中的顺序不可以随意改变。（三）类别法：作者在首句或主题句中探讨事物较大一级的类别/种类之后，用首句中大类别属下的小类别对主题进行一一说明或支持的细节组织模式。常见典型的信号标志：categories,kinds,classes,groups,elements,varieties,等。[主题句]Therearetwofactorsdetermineanindividual’sintelligence.Thefirstisthesortofbrainheisbornwith.Humanbrainsdifferconsiderably,somebeingmorecapablethanothers.Butnomatterhowgoodabrainhehastobeginwith,anindividualwillhavealoworderofintelligenceunlesshehasopportunitiestolearn.Sothesecondfactoriswhathappenstotheindividual-thesortofenvironmentinwhichheisreared.Ifanindividualishandicappedenvironmentally,itislikelythathisbrainwillfailtodevelopandhewillneverattaintheleverofintelligenceofwhichheiscapable.这篇短文所用的模式就是典型的类别法：主题句先提到决定个人智力的因素有两个。然后再分别对两个因素进行一一说明。类别法在四级阅读试卷出现过，但并不常见，下面是一个例子（1999年6月）：

[主题句]Martineputsitdownto,amongotherthings,soapoperas(通俗电视连续剧)andinstallment(分期付款)plansintroducedinthe1970s.Bothplayedanimportant,althoughindirect,roleinloweringthebirthrate.Brazilisoneoftheworld'sbiggestproducersofsoapoperas.Globl,Brazil'smostpopulartelevisionnetwork,showsthreehoursofsoapssixnightsaweek,whilethreeothersshowatleastonehouranight.Mostsoapsarebasedonwealthycharacterslivingthehighlifeinbigcities."Althoughtheyhaveneverreallytriedtoworkinamessagetowardstheproblemsofreproduction,theydescribemiddleandupperclassvaluesnotmanychildren,differentattitudestowardssex,womenworking,"saysMartine."Theysent

thisimagetoallpartsofBrazilandmadepeopleconsciousofotherpatternsofbehaviorandothervalues,whichwereputintoaveryattractivepackage."Meanwhile,theinstallmentplanstriedtoencouragethepoortobecomeconsumers."Thisledtoanenormouschangeinconsumptionpatternsandconsumptionwasincompatible(不相容的)withunlimitedreproduction."saysMartine.作者在主题句中提出通俗电视连续剧和分期付款两个因素之后，随后在下文分别对它们展开一一说明。（四）举例法：作者通过一系列例子或一个例子来说明或支持主题或观点。举例法的特点是生动、直观、更具有说服力，能将复杂的内容简单化，在四级阅读测试中很常见。例如：（1999年1月）[中心主题]Theappealofadvertisingtobuyingmotivescanhavebothnegativeandpositiveeffects.Consumersmaybeconvincedtobuyaproductofpoorqualityorhighpricebecauseofanadvertisement.Forexample,someadvertisershaveappealedtopeople'sdesireforbetterfueleconomyfortheircarsbyadvertisingautomotiveproductsthatimprovegasolinemileage.Someoftheproductswork.Othersareworthlessandawasteofconsumers'money.

[主题/段首句]Sometimesadvertisingisintentionallymisleading.Afewyearsagoabrandofbreadwasofferedtodieters(节食者)withthemessagethattherewerefewercalories(热量单位，大卡)ineveryslice.Itturnedoutthatthebreadwasnotdietetic(适合于节食的),butjustregularbread.Therewerefewercaloriesbecauseitwasslicedverythin,buttherewerethesamenumberofcaloriesineveryloaf.

[主题/段首句]Onthepositiveside,emotionalappealsmayrespondtoaconsumer'srealconcerns.Considerfireinsurance.Fireinsurancemaybesoldbyappealingtofearofloss.Butfearoflossistherealreasonforfireinsurance.Thesecurityofknowingthatpropertyisprotectedbyinsurancemakesthepurchaseoffireinsuranceaworthwhileinvestmentformostpeople.Ifconsumersconsiderthequalityoftheinsuranceplansaswellasthemessageintheads,theywillbenefitfromtheadvertising.[结论句]Eachconsumermustevaluateherorhisownsituation.Arethebenefitsoftheproductimportantenoughtojustifybuyingit?Advertisingisintendedtoappealtoconsumers,butitdoesnotforcethemtobuytheproduct.Consumersstillcontrolthefinalbuyingdecision.

这是一例很典型的举例法模式：作者一开篇提出中心主题——Theappealofadvertisingtobuyingmotivescanhavebothnegativeandpositiveeffects.随后通过信号词（forexample）引出例子对中心主题加以说明。紧接着在第二段段首句出现之后，作者又以“abrandofbread”为例，对段主题加以生动地说明。在第三段段主题之后，作者再一次引用“fireinsurance”为例子。最后作者在结尾段得出结论：Eachconsumermustevaluateherorhisownsituation。文章连贯，一气呵成，且极具说服力。又如：（2002年12月）Privatization,orthethreatofit,isamotivationaswell.Monopolies(垄断者)thatuntilrecentlyhavebeenfreetotaketheircustomersforgrantednowfearwhatMichaelPerry,amarketingprofessor,calls“therevengeful(报复的)consumer.”WhenthegovernmentopenedupcompetitionwithBezaq,thephonecompany,itsinternationalbranchlost40%ofitsmarketshare,evenwhileofferingcompetitiverates.SaysPerry,“Peoplewantedrevengeforalltheyearsofbadservice.”Theelectriccompany,whosemonopolymaybeshort-lived,hassuddenlystoppedrequiringuserstowaithalfadayforarepairman.Now,appointmentsarescheduledtothehalf-hour.ThegracelessElAlAirlines,whichisalreadyatauction(拍卖)，hasretraineditsemployeestoemphasizeserviceandisboastingabouttheresultsinanadcampaignwiththeslogan,“Youcanfeelthechangeintheair.”Forthefirsttime,praiseoutnumberscomplaintsoncustomersurveysheets.此段也是一例典型的举例法模式：作者在主题句出现后，连续引用了三个例子（thephonecompany,theelectriccompany,theELALAirlines）来支持、论证段主题。（五）因果法：一种极为常见的篇章段落组织模式。通常有以下几种情形：①篇章段落的首句表达原因，随后在辅助句后的细节支持句部分阐述原因所造成的结果。②或恰恰相反，篇章段落的首句给出结果，随后在辅助句或支持句部分道出此结果相关的原因。此模式在四级阅读测试中比比皆是，例如：（1999年1月）PresidentCoolidge'sstatement,“ThebusinessofAmericaisbusiness,”stillpointstoanimportanttruthtodaythatbusinessinstitutionshavemoreprestige(威望)inAmericansocietythananyotherkindoforganization,includingthegovernment.[中心主题]Whydobusinessinstitutionspossessthisgreatprestige?[段首句]OnereasonisthatAmericansviewbusinessasbeingmorefirmlybasedontheidealofcompetitionthanotherinstitutionsinsociety.SincecompetitionisseenasthemajorsourceofprogressandprosperitybymostAmericans,competitivebusinessinstitutionsarerespected.Competitionisnotonlygoodinitself,itisthemeansbywhichotherbasicAmericanvaluessuchasindividualfreedom,equalityofopportunity,andhardworkareprotected.

[段首句]Competitionprotectsthefreedomoftheindividualbyensuringthatthereisnomonopoly(垄断)ofpower.Incontrasttoone,all-powerfulgovernment,manybusinessescompeteagainsteachotherforprofits.Theoretically,ifonebusinesstriestotakeunfairadvantageofitscustomers,itwilllosetocompetingbusinesswhichtreatsitscustomersmorefairly.Wheremanybusinessescompeteforthecustomers'dollar,theycannotaffordtotreatthemlikeinferiorsorslaves.

[段首句]Acontrastisoftenmadebetweenbusiness,whichiscompetitive,andgovernment,whichisamonopoly.Becausebusinessiscompetitive,manyAmericansbelievethatitismoresupportiveoffreedomthangovernment,eventhoughgovernmentleadersareelectedbythepeopleandbusinessleadersarenot.ManyAmericansbelieve,then,thatcompetitionisasimportant,orevenmoreimportant,thatdemocracyinpreservingfreedom.

[段首句]Competitioninbusinessisalsobelievedtostrengthentheidealofequalityofopportunity.Competitionisseenasanopenandfairracewheresuccessgoestotheswiftestpersonregardlessofhisorhersocialclassbackground.CompetitivesuccessiscommonlyseenastheAmericanalternativetosocialrankbasedonfamilybackground.Businessisthereforeviewedasanexpressionoftheideaofequalityofopportunityratherthanthearistocratic(贵族的)ideaofinheritedprivilege.

这是一篇典型的因果法模式：作者在开篇时提出中心主题——“Whydobusinessinstitutionspossessthisgreatprestige?”然后在第二段进行原因解释：OnereasonisthatAmericansviewbusinessasbeingmorefirmlybasedontheidealofcompetitionthanotherinstitutionsinsociety。而本句恰好为第二段的段首句，随后作者又对此段首句进行原因剖析，使用了一个信号词“since”。还引出另一系列原因而且成为下面三段的段首句。同样地，作者围绕这三段的段首句展开了相关的原因分析。借助因果法组织模式，作者的论证层层推进，思路清晰。另一种常见的因果模式在四级阅读试题中也出现过，举例如下：（1999年6月）

[主题句]WhyisAmericanlaggingbehindintheglobalPRrace?First,Americansasawholetendtobefairlyprovincialandtakemoreofaninterestinlocalaffairs.Knowledgeofworldgeography,forexample,hasneverbeenstronginthiscountry.Secondly,AmericanslagbehindtheirEuropeanandAsiancounterparts(相对应的人)inknowingasecondlanguage.Lessthan5percentofBurson-Marshall'sU.S.employeesknowtwolanguages.OgilvyandMatherhasaboutthesamepercentageConversely,someEuropeanfirmshavehalformoreoftheiremployeesfluentinasecondlanguage.Finally,peopleinvolvedinPRabroadtendtokeepaclosereyeon

internationalaffairs.InthefinancialPRarea,forinstance,mostAmericansreadtheWallStreetJournal.Overseas,theircounterpartsreadtheJournalaswellastheFinancialTimesofLondonandTheEconomist,publicationsnotoftenreadinthiscountry.

作者在给出主题之后，通过first,secondly,finally陈述了三个原因。常见的表因果的信号词有：because,since,asaresult,iscausedby,dueto,consequently,forthisreason,so,therefore,leadto等。（六）时间顺序法：按照事件发生的时间的先后顺序来陈述事实即为时间顺序法。该方法常用于描述某一机器、某一种思想、某一个或某一事件的相关历史。例如：[主题句]Manhaslearnedtotravelfasterandfasterthroughouthistory.Whenthewheelwasinventedoverathousandyearsago,manlearnedthatitwaspossibletotravelfasteronwheelsthanonfoot.Withtheinventionofthesteamengineabouttwohundredyearsago,manbegantotravelatwhatwascalled“dangerous”speedofbetween20to30milesanhour.Thegasolineenginesthatwereusedbetween1900and1920developedspeedsupto60milesanhour.Inthelate1920’s,propellerairplanesbegantoflyatthespeedofmorethan100milesanhour.Abouttwentyyearsago,manbegantotravelincommercialjetplanesatspeedsabove500milesanhour.该例为典型的时间顺序法，作者按时间的先后对人类的交通发展史进行描述。时间顺序法常见且容易辨认。常用的信号词有：before,after,next,then,once,untilnow,earlier,later,previously等。该模式在四级阅读考试中也有典型的例子，例如：(1997年6月)Inthepast,makingstructuresquake-resistantmeantfirmyetflexiblematerials,suchassteelandwood,thatbendwithoutbreaking.Later,peopletriedtoliftabuildingoffitsfoundation,andinsertrubberandsteelbetweenthebuildinganditsfoundationtoreducetheimpactofthegroundvibrations.Themostrecentdesigngivesbuildingsbrainsaswellasconcreteandsteelsupports.Calledsmartbuildings,thestructuresrespondlikelivingorganismstoanearthquake’svibration.Whenthegroundshakesandthebuildingtipsforward,thecomputerwouldforcethebuildingtoshiftintheoppositedirection.（七）比较和/或对比法：在生活中，人们对事物时常进行比较和对比。在此，比较指出事物的相似之处，而对比是讨论两个事物的不同点。比较和对比组织模式可以分别使用，更多的时候是一起使用，因为事物在多数情况下既可有相同又有不同之处。例如：[主题句]Learningtoreadwellislikelearningtoimproveinasport.Therearesomanythingstothinkofallatthesametime.Theinexperiencedtennisplayer,forexample,mustremembertobendhisknees.Hemustthinkofkeepinghiseyesontheball.Hemustremembertoholdhiswriststraightandfollowthroughonhisswing.Theinexperiencedreaderalsohastoremembermanythingsatonce.Hemusttrytoreadinphrases,notwordbyword.Hemustanalyzenewwords,lookforthemainidea,noteimportantdetails.Andatthesametimehemustreadfasterandfaster.Boththebeginningreaderandthetennisplayerfeelfrustrated.Butpracticepaysoffforthetennisplayer.Practicewillpatoffforthereadertooandleadtohigherandshaperskills.Readingwellwillbecomeasnaturalashittingaballwell.该篇使用了比较模式：主题句之后，作者对学习阅读和学习打网球进行了三方面的比较。在比较的过程中使用了（like,also,too,as…as）等信号词。再看下面一例：Thereislittledifferenceinthetwomagazines.Botharepublishedonceaweek,andbothreportthelatestnewsevents.Theyoftenhavesimilarphotographsonthefrontpage.Onemagazineislargerthantheother,butthedifferenceisnotimportant.该例虽短，但既有比较也有对比。比较和/对比法在四级阅读测试在也很常见，如1999年1月的PassageFour：Solongasteachersfailtodistinguishbetweenteachingandlearning,theywillcontinuetoundertaketodoforchildrenthatwhichonlychildrencandoforthemselves.[中心主题]Teachingchildrentoreadisnotpassingreadingontothem.Itiscertainlynotendlesshoursspentinactivitiesaboutreading.Douglasinsiststhat“readingcannotbetaughtdirectlyandschoolsshouldstoptryingtodotheimpossible.”[段首句]Teachingandlearningaretwoentirelydifferentprocesses.Theydifferinkindandfunction.Thefunctionofteachingistocreatetheconditionsandtheclimatethatwillmakeitpossibleforchildrentodevisethemostefficientsystemforteachingthemselvestoread.Teachingisalsopublicactivity:Itcanbeseenandobserved.Learningtoreadinvolvesallthateachindividualdoestomakesenseoftheworldofprintedlanguage.Almostallofitisprivate,forlearningisanoccupationofthemind,andthatprocessisnotopentopublicscrutiny.

Ifteacherandlearnerrolesarenotinterchangeable,whatthencanbedonethroughteachingthatwillaidthechildinthequest(探索)forknowledge?Smithhasoneprincipalruleforallteachinginstructions.“makelearningtoreadeasy,whichmeans[结论]makingreadingameaningful,enjoyableandfrequentexperienceforchildren.”

Whentherolesofteacherandlearnerareseenforwhattheyare,andwhenbothteacherandlearnerfulfillthemappropriately,thenmuchofthepressureandfeelingoffailureforbothiseliminated.[结论]Learningtoreadismadeeasierwhenteacherscreateanenvironmentwherechildrenaregiventheopportunitytosolvetheproblemofleaningtoreadbyreading.

这是一篇议论文，作者开宗明义，阐明中心主题，进而通过对比的组织模式来分析教与学的本质区别（第二、三段，特别关注第二段的段首句及其后面出现的黑体字部分），指出了阅读不能靠传授，而应当靠学生的自学。最后在结论部分（最后两段）作者明确教授阅读的原则。比较和/或对比法中常见的信号词有：similarly,too,also,likewise,inthesameway,unlike,ontheotherhand,