新编简明英语语言学教程笔记

生命是永恒不断的创建，因为在它内部蕴含着过剩的精力，它不断流溢，越出时

间和空间的界限，它不停地追求，以形形色色的自我表现的形式表现出来。

---泰戈尔

ChapteroneIntroduction

一、定义

1.语言学Linguistics

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

2.一般语言学GeneralLinguistics

ThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.

3语言language

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

语言是人类用来交际的随意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征DesignFeatures

Itreferstothedefiningpopertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemof

communication.

语言识别特征是指人类语言区分与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness随意性

Productivity多产性

Duality双重性

Displacement移位性

Culturaltransmission文化传递

(Darbitrariness

Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.

P.Sthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossiblefor

languagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions

⑵Productivity

Animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.

⑶Duality

Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.

(4)Displacement

Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.

(5)Culturaltransmission

Humancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butwehavetobetaughtandlearnedthedetails

ofanylanguagesystem,thisshowedthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted,notbyinstinct,

animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.

5.语言实力Competence

Competenceistheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.

6.语言运用performance

Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.

语言运用是所驾驭的规则在语言交际中的体现。

7.历时语言学Diachroniclinguistics

Thestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime,adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,

whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.

8.共时语言学Synchronicallinguistics

Thestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.

9.语言langue

Theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.

10.言语parole

Therealizationoflangueinactualuse.

11.规定性Prescriptive

Itaimstolaydownrulesfor“correct”behavior,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhat

shouldnotsay.

12.描述性Descriptive

Alinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.

二、学问点

1.languageisnotanisolatedphenomenon,it'sasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocial

environmentbyhumanbeings.

语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在确定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

2.几种观点和现象的提出者：

⑴瑞士语言学家F.deSaussureEdeSaussure:Langue和parole的区分

⑵U.S.AlinguistN.Chomsky美国语言学家N.Chomsky

in1950针对Saussure?slangue&parole提出Competence和performance

⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家

Sapir---languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicationideas,emotions

anddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.

Hall——languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherby

meansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.

Chomsky--fromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthand

constructedoutofafinitesetofelements.

(4)U.S.ALinguistCharlesHockett美国语言学家CharlesHockett

提出了语言的识别特征designfeatures

3.theword9language9precededbythezero-article,itimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotany

particularlanguage.

Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只探讨一种特定的语言。

4.inordertodiscoverthenatureoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguistshastodo

firstiftostudylanguagefacts.

5.languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacts,soit'shardlypossibleforthe

linguisticstodealwithitallatonce.推断题

6.Fristdrewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages.最先弓|起语言学家留

意的是语言的发音。

三、问答题

l.whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?whatdoeseachstudy?

Phonetics----it'sdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,it'sconcernedwithallthe

soundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages.

Phonology-thestudyofsoundssystems—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurina

languageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.

Morphology--It'sabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandthe

rulesbywhichwordsareformed.

Syntax-------it*sasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.

Semantics-It'ssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.

Pragmaticsthestudyofmeaningincontextofwords.

Sociolinguistics-thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.

Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.

Appliedlinguistics---theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingand

learning.

2.whydowesaylanguageisarbitrary?

Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthat

peopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.

Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationof

thearbitrarynatureoflanguage,it'sonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkand

notanyinnaterelationshipboundupintheutterance.

Atypicalexampletoillustratethe'arbitrariness'oflanguageis'arosebyanyothernamewould

smellassweet'.

3.whatmakesmodemlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?

Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive,itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspoken

languagedate.现代语言学是描述性的，其探讨以的确牢靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。

traditionalgrammarisprescriptive,itisbasedon,high'writtenlanguage.

传统语法是规定性的，探讨‘高级'书面语。

4.1smodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?why

Modernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage,unlessthevarious

statesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefroma

diachronicpointofview.

现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点探讨现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的探讨，

否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。

5.whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwritings?

Speechenjoysforthefollowingreasons:

(DSpeechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution.

(2)Alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.

(3)speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.

6.howisSaussure5sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky's?

BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandthe

actualuseoflanguage,theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudy

TwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksat

languagefromapsychologicalpointofview,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeach

individual.

6.thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?

(Dlangueisabstract,relativelystable(2)paroleisconcrete,variesfrompersontoperson,from

situationtosituation.

1/Whatislinguistics?

什么是语言学？

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticular

language,butlanguagesingeneral.

2/Thescopeoflinguistics

语言学的探讨范畴

Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.（一般语言学）

Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（语音学）

Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系

学）

Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.

（形态学）

Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法

学）

Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（语义学）

Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社会语言学）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理

语言学）

Thestudyofapplications（astherecoveryofspeechability）isgenerallyknownasapplied

linguistics.（应用语言学）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationof

linguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingof

foreignandsecondlanguage.

Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学）neurological

linguistics,（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）andcomputational

linguistics.（计算机语言学）

3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

语言学探讨中的几对基本概念

Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写

Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobe

descriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshould

notsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.

Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhile

modernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeople

actuallyuse,whetheritis“correct“ornot.

Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时

Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofa

languageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudy

ismoreimportant.

Speechandwriting口头语与书面语

Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthe

spokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedes

writing;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,

thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalarger

loadofcommunicationthanthewritten.

Langueandparole语言和言语

TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20th

century.

Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,

andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninorder

tosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoisto

abstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageand

makethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.

Competenceandperformance语言实力和语言运用

ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950,s.

Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and

performancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthe

taskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.

ChapterTwoPhonology

一、定义

1.宽式音标Broadtranscription

Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.

2.窄式音标Narrowtranscription

Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.

3.清音Voiceless

WhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapartJettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,the

soundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.

4.浊音Voicing

Soundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.

5.元音Vowel

Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstream

passesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.

6.辅音Consonants

Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthe

vocaltractarecalledconsonants.

7.音位Phoneme

Thebasicunitinphonology,ifsacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.

8.音位变体Allophones

Differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledthe

allophonesofthatphoneme.

9.音素phone

Aphoneticunitorsegment.itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,it'saspeechsoundweuse

whenspeakingalanguage.

10.最小对立对Minimalpair

Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccurs

inthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.

11.超切分特征Suprasegmental

Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmental

features,themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestressintonationandtone.

12.互补分布complementarydistributionP35

Twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

13.语言的语音媒介Phonicmediumoflanguage

Thelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinterest

tolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.

在人类交际中有着确定意义、对语言学探讨来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。

14.爆破音stops

Whenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproduced

withtheobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.

theyare[b][p][t][d][k][g]

二、学问点

1.statisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,0001anguagesin

theworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.

2.ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.

3.Phonetic组成

(DArticuIaloryphonetics发音语音学longestestablished,mostlydeveloped

(2)Auditoryphonetics听觉语音学

(3)Acousticphonetics声学语音学

4.articulatoryApparatus/OrgansofSpeech

Pharyngealcavity-咽腔

Oral...-口腔greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhere

Nasal•••-鼻腔

5.Thetongueisthemostflexible,responsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother,the

extremebackofthetonguecanberaisedtowardstheuvulaandaspeechsoundcanbethus

producedasisusedinArabicandFrench.

6.Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationof[k]

and[g],thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthelongueleadstothe

sound|j];theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthe

sounds[t]and[d].

7.nasalconsonants:[m]/[n]/[r]]

9.APhoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.

lO.Sequentialrules例子

Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshould

obeythefollowingthreerules:

(Dthefirstphonememustbe/s/

(2)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/

(3)thethirdphonememustbe/I/or/r/or/w

11.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Fallingtone;Risingtone;Fall-risetone;Rise-falltone

三、问答题

l.whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsound?

Articulatory-describesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhow

theydiffer.

Auditory—studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthat

phoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.

Acoustic—studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeaker

tothehearer.

发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。

听觉语音学探讨语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的志向。

声学语音学探讨语音的物理性质，探讨语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。

2.howaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?

ByplaceofarticulationandBymannerofarticulation

3.howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?whodoyouthinkwillbemore

interestedinthedifferentbetweensay[i]and[i],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphilologist?why?

语音学和音位学的探讨中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关切清晰音的区分?为

什么？

Phonetics-descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferences.

Phonology-descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctionto

distinguishmeaning.

Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcos

differencesinmeaning.

4.whafsaphone?howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?

Phone—aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.

Phoneme---acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.

Allophones-actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.

5.whatisaminimalpairandaminimalset?whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetina

language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中特殊重要？

Minimalpair-twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthat

occursinthesameposition.

除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.

Minimalset—agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.

一组具有上述特征的语音组合.

Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphilologistcanidentifyits

phonemes.

通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组，音位学家能辨别出它的音位.

6.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?

Broadtranscription-onelettersymbolforonesound.

Narrowtranscription-diacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefiner

differencesbetweensounds.

7.explainthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.

有序规则Sequentialrules

Rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.

同化规则Assimilationrules

Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby'copying'afeatureofasequential

phoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.

省略规则Deletionrule

It'saphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographically

represented.

ChapterThreeMorphology

一、定义

1.词素Morpheme

Thebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.

2.自由词素FreeMorpheme

Freemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.

3.黏着词素Boundmorphemes

Boundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcanotbeusedbythemselves,mustbecombined

withothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.

4.词根Root

Rootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.

5.词缀Affix

Thecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanother

morpheme.

6.曲折词缀inflectionalaffixes

Themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,such

asnumber,tense,degreeandcase.

7.沙氏生词缀Derivationalaffixes

Themanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivational

affixes.

8.词干Stem

Astemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded,astemcanbeabound

root,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.

9.形态学规则Morphologicalrules

Theyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.

10.前缀Prefix

Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,bulusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechofthe

originalword,exceptionsaretheprefixes'be-'and'en(m)-6

11.后缀Suffix

Suffixesareaddedtotheendofstems,theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandin

manycaseschangeitspartofspeech.3.Inusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainst

Over-generalization.

二、学问点

Inflectionalmorphology

1.Morphology

Derivationalmorphology

Freemoiphemes

MorphemesRoot

BoundmorphemesInflectionalaffixes

Affixes

Prefix

Derivationalaffixes

2.somewordsmaybesaidtocontainarootmorpheme.Suffix

4.Compoundfeatures:

(1)orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithouta

hypheninbetween.

(2)Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.

(3)semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofall

itscomponent

ChapterFourSyntax

一、定义

1.句子sentence

Astructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacomplete

statement,questionorcommand.

2.语言运用Linguisticcompetence

Thesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeaker.

3.谓语Predicate

Thepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomething

aboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.

4.定式子句FiniteClause

Aclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,andatthesametimestandsstructurallyalone.

5.从属子句EmbeddedClause(EC)

Inacompletesentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanEC.

6.主要子句MatrixClause

Inacomplexedsentence,theclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.

7层次结构Hierarchicalstructure

Thesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntactic

categoriesofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.

8.语法关系Grammaticalrelations

Thestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandsentence.

9.句法类型Syntacticcategory

Awordorphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunctionsuchasthesubjectorobject.

10.表层结构S-structure

Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationaftertheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.

11.深层结构D-structure

Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationbeforetheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.

12.普遍语法Generalgrammar

Asystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersabout

naturelanguage.

13.移动Q规则Movea

Ageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.

14.句法移位Syntacticmovement

Syntacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentmovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewposition.

15.转换原则Transformationrules

Syntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalledtransformationalrules,whose

operationmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.

16.X标杆理论X-bartheory

Ageneralandhighlyabstractschemathatcollapsesallphrasesstructurerulesintoasingle

format:X"-*(Spec)X(CompI).

一种泛指的、高度抽象的图示，它把全部的词组结构规则概括为一种程式

X”f(Spec)X(Compl)

a:X"b:X"SpecX5

SpecX'X'Xcompl

Xcomplement

NP'thestudentwholikeslinguisticsJconsistsofDet,NandSwithDetbeingtheSpecifier,N

thehead,Sthecomplement.NP(…)有冠词、名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语，名词是核心词，

子句是补足语。

二、学问点

1.syntax这个单词源于Greek,本义是arrangement.

2.我们把syntax的学习看作asystemofrulesthatgoverntheformationofgrammatical

sentence.

3.Amajorgoaloflinguisticsistoshowwithaconsistentandexplicitgrammaticaltheoryhow

syntacticrulesaccountforthisgrammaticalknowledge.

4.推断题：thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothe

numberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.

5.推断题:Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,action

oroccurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.

一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动

或事务。

6.句子的分类simplesentence

Typesofsentencescoordinateorcompoundsentence

Complexsentence

简洁句一Itconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneas

itsownsentence.

并歹！J句合成句-Itcontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,

suchas"but","and”.ect.

复合句一Itcontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.

复合句的特点：

(DAnembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause

(2)MostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledaSubordinator,suchas“that”

(3)Anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstands

independentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitsformchanges.

子句是一个语法单位，大部分子句要带一个被称为从属连词的引导词，假如子句作为秒年

第秒年句单独存在，它可能不是一个合乎规范的句子，除非变更他的形式。

7.whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafter

anotherinasequence.

8.Thehierarchicalnatureofsentencestructure句子结构层次特点

sentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasnounphraseNPor

verbphraseVP,groupedtogether.

9.ThepointsatwhichthetreebrachesatvariouslevelsarecalledBranchingnodes分叉点

lO.Inadditiontotheuseofstructuraltreediagrams,linguistsmayshowthehierarchicalstructure

ofsentencesbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.

11.句法类型

Major…主要词类open,canaddnewwords

Lexicalcategory名、动、形、副词N,V,Adj,Adv

SyntacticMinor***次要词类close,wordsarefixed

Categories限定、助动、介、代、连、叹Del,Aiix,Prep,Pron,Conj,Int

Phrasalcategory

Apartfromsentencesandclauses,asyntacticcategoryusuallyreferstoaword(calledalexical

category)oraphrase(calledphrasalcategory)thatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,

suchasthesubjectinasentence.

12.短语类型

NounPhraseNP

PhrasalVerbPhraseVP

CategoriesPrepositionPhrasePP

AdjectivePhraseAP

13.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachmounphraseinthesentence

relatestotheverb,inmanycases,grammaticalrelationsrefervirtuallyto'who'

does'what'to'whom'.

14.weusuallyrefertothegrammaticalrelationsassubjectofanddirectobjectof.

15.Combinationalrulesmustbesmallinnumbersoasnottocreateextraburdensonthehuman

memory,alsotheserulesmustbepowerfulenoughtoyieldallthepossiblesentences,andruleout

theimpossibleones

组合规则确定不能太多，以免给人的记忆带来过多的负担，用这些规则必需能组合出全部可

能的句子，而解除不行能的句子。

16.rulesangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,dueto

theirrecursiveproperties.Itcapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoa

sentenceandenablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.

循环性体现了语言中的句子能有更多的成分，使说话者能在同一句子中重复一些句法成分。

17.移位类型

SyntacticNP-movement=t,sinvolvingthemovementofanounphrase.

Movement名词短语的移位

WH-movement=Itchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.

陈述变疑问句

AUX-...=themovementofanauxiliaryverbtothesentenceinitialposition.

助动词移位到句首的移位

18.普遍语法的广义原则

GeneralPrinciplesofUniversalGrammar:CaseCondition和AdjacencyCondition

格条件-anounphrasemusthaveCaseandCaseisassignedbyVorPtotheobjectposition,or

byAUXtothesubjectposition.

名词词组必需有格，宾语的格是由动词或介词确定，而主语的格由助动词确定。

相令B条件——acaseassignorandaCaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother,itexplainswhy

nootherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject.

格分派者和格接受者要相邻。这说明白为什么任何别的词组类不能插到动词和它的干脆宾语

之间。

19.UniversalGrammarisbelievedtocontainaparameterwiththevalves增and减setonthe

Adjacencycondition,withEnglish-typela