成本与管理会计-2

CHAPTER2AnIntroductiontoCostTermsandPurposes©2009PearsonPrenticeHall.Allrightsreserved.BasicCostTerminologyCost–sacrificedresourcetoachieveaspecificobjectiveActualcost–acostthathasoccurredBudgetedcost–apredicted/plannedcostCostobject–anythingofinterestforwhichacostisdesiredCostObjectExamplesatBMWCostObjectIllustrationProductBMWX5sportsactivityvehicleServiceDealer-supporttelephonehotlineProjectR&DprojectonDVDsystemenhancementCustomerHerbChambersMotors,adealerthatpurchasesabroadrangeofBMWvehiclesActivitySettingupproductionmachinesDepartmentEnvironmental,Health&SafetyBasicCostTerminologyCostaccumulation–acollectionofcostdatainanorganizedmannerCostassignment–ageneraltermthatincludesgatheringaccumulatedcoststoacostobject.Thisincludes:TracingaccumulatedcostswithadirectrelationshiptothecostobjectandAllocatingaccumulatedcostswithanindirectrelationshiptoacostobjectManufacturingCostIndirectLabor:costofForeman;supervisors;Materialhandlers;cleanersManufacturingcostManufacturingoverheadDirectmaterialsDirectLabor:FactoryExpenses:IndirectMaterials:materialsNotpartofproductManufacturingCostConversionCost:costofConvertingmaterialsIntofinishedproducts=DL+mfg.OHManufacturingcostManufacturingoverheadDirectmaterialsDirectLaborPrimeCost=DM+DLManufacturingOverhead:

Indirectmaterials;Indirectlabor;Otherfactoryexpenses:rent;insurance;electricity;depreciationOfP.P.E,etc.Direct&IndirectCostsDirectcosts–canbeconvenientlyandeconomicallytraced(tracked)toacostobjectIndirectcosts–cannotbeconvenientlyoreconomicallytraced(tracked)toacostobject.Insteadofbeingtraced,thesecostsareallocatedtoacostobjectinarationalandsystematicmannerBMW:AssigningCoststoaCostObjectCostExamplesDirectCostsPartsAssemblylinewagesIndirectCostsElectricityRentPropertytaxesFactorsAffectingDirect/IndirectCostClassificationCostMaterialityAvailabilityofinformation-gatheringtechnologyOperationalDesignCostBehaviorVariablecosts–changesintotalinproportiontochangesintherelatedlevelofactivityorvolumeFixedcosts–remainunchangedintotalregardlessofchangesintherelatedlevelofactivityorvolumeCostsarefixedorvariableonlywithrespecttoaspecificactivityoragiventimeperiodCostBehavior,continuedVariablecosts–areconstantonaper-unitbasis.Ifaproducttakes5poundsofmaterialseach,itstaysthesameperunitregardlessofone,tenorathousandunitsareproducedFixedcosts–changeinverselywiththelevelofproduction.Asmoreunitsareproduced,thesamefixedcostisspreadovermoreandmoreunits,reducingthecostperunitComparing

VariableandFixedCostsAvariablecostchangesindirectproportiontochangesinthecost-driverlevel.Afixedcostisnotimmediatelyaffectedbychangesinthecost-driverlevel.RulesofThumbThinkoffixedcostsasatotal.Totalfixedcostsremainunchangedregardlessofchangesincost-driveractivity.RulesofThumbThinkofvariablecostsonaper-unitbasis.Theper-unitvariablecostremainsunchangedregardlessofchangesinthecost-driveractivity.CostBehaviorVisualizedCostBehaviorSummarizedTotalDollarsCostperUnitVariableCostsChangeinproportionwithoutputMoreoutput=MorecostFixedCostsUnchangedinrelationtooutputChangeinverselywithoutputMoreoutput=lowercostperunitTotalDollarsCostPerUnitVariableCostsChangeinproportionwithoutputMoreoutput=MorecostUnchangedinrelationtooutputFixedCostsUnchangedinrelationtooutputChangeinverselywithoutputMoreoutput=lowercostperunitEX2-23，page47OtherCostConceptsCostDriver–avariablethatcausallyaffectscostsoveragiventimespanRelevantRange–thebandofnormalactivitylevel(orvolume)inwhichthereisaspecificrelationshipbetweenthelevelofactivity(orvolume)andagivencostForexample,fixedcostsareconsideredfixedonlywithintherelevantrange.RelevantRangeTherelevantrangespecifiesthelimitsofcost-driveractivitywithinwhichaspecificrelationshipbetweenacostanditscostdriverwillbevalid.RelevantRangeVisualizedMultipleClassificationofCosts,VisualizedACostCaveat：useunitcostcautiouslyUnitcostsshouldbeusedcautiously.Sinceunitcostschangewithadifferentlevelofoutputorvolume,itmaybemoreprudenttobasedecisionsonatotaldollarbasis.UnitcoststhatincludefixedcostsshouldalwaysreferenceagivenlevelofoutputoractivityUnitCostsarealsocalledAverageCostsEXP31AccountingDistinctionBetweenCostsInventorablecosts–productmanufacturingcosts.Thesecostsarecapitalizedasassets(inventory)untiltheyaresoldandtransferredtoCostofGoodsSold.Periodcosts–Areexpensedasincurred.DirectMaterialsDirectLaborIndirectLaborIndirectMaterialsOtherManufacturingOverheadInventoriableProductCostsValueChainResearchandDevelopmentDesignProductionorPurchasesMarketingDistribution

CustomerServiceInventoriablecostDifferentTypesofFirmsManufacturingcompanies–createandselltheirownproductsMerchandisingcompanies–productresellersServicecompanies–provideservices(intangibleproducts)TypesofManufacturingInventoriesDirectMaterials–resourcesin-stockandavailableforuseWork-in-Process(orprogress)–productsstartedbutnotyetcompleted.OftenabbreviatedasWIPFinishedGoods–productscompletedandreadyforsaleTypesofProductCostsAlsoknownasInventorableCostsDirectMaterialsDirectLaborIndirectManufacturing–factorycoststhatarenottraceabletotheproduct.OthercommonnamesforthistypeofcostincludeManufacturingOverheadcostsorFactoryOverheadcosts.CostFlowsTheCostofGoodsManufacturedandtheCostofGoodsSoldsectionoftheIncomeStatementareaccountingrepresentationsoftheactualflowofcoststhroughaproductionsystem.Notetheimportanceofinventoryaccountsinthefollowingaccountingreports,andinthecostflowchartCostFlowsVisualizedCostofGoodsManufactured Multiple-StepIncomeStatementOtherCostConsiderationsPrimecostisatermreferringtoalldirectmanufacturingcosts(laborandmaterials)Conversioncostisatermreferringtodirectlaborandfactoryoverheadcosts,collectivelyOvertimelaborcostsareconsideredpartofoverheadduetotheinabilitytopreciselyknowthetruecauseofthesecostsDifferentDefinitionsofCosts

forDifferentApplicationsPricingandproduct-mixdecisions–mayusea“super”costapproach(comprehensive)Contractingwithgovernmentagencies–veryspecificdefinitionsofcostfor“costplusprofit”contractsPreparingexternal-usefinancialstatements–GAAP-drivenproductcostsonlyDifferentDefinitionsofCosts

forDifferentApplicationsThreeCommonFeaturesof

CostAccounting&CostManagementCalculatingthecostofproducts,services,andothercostobjectsObtaininginformationforplanning&control,andperformanceevaluatio