Chapter-2计算机科学技术史

YunnanUniversityAHistoryofComputerScienceandTechnologyFall2007Dr.TongLiChapter2ExplorestheComputingMachine2.1TheInventionoftheAbacusThefirstactualcalculatingmechanismknowntousistheabacus,whichisthoughttohavebeeninventedbytheBabylonianssometimebetween1,000BCand500BC,althoughsomeexpertsareoftheopinionthatitwasactuallyinventedbytheChinese.ThewordabacuscomestousbywayofLatinasamutation〔变化〕oftheGreekwordabax.我国处于西周〔前1046—前771年〕和东周春秋〔前770—前476年〕时期。Regardlessofthesource,theoriginalconceptreferredtoaflatstonecoveredwithsand(ordust)intowhichnumericsymbolsweredrawn.Thefirstabacuswasalmostcertainlybasedonsuchastone,withpebblesbeingplacedonlinesdrawninthesand.Overtimethestonewasreplacedbyawoodenframesupportingthinsticks,braided〔辫子形的〕hair,orleatherthongs〔皮带〕,ontowhichclaybeadsorpebbleswithholeswerethreaded.TwoMainTypesAvarietyofdifferenttypesofabacusweredeveloped,butthemostpopularbecamethosebasedonthebi-quinary〔五进制〕system,whichutilizesacombinationoftwobases(base-2andbase-5)torepresentdecimalnumbers.Althoughtheabacusdoesnotqualifyasamechanicalcalculator,itcertainlystandsproudasoneoffirstmechanicalaidstocalculation.APrimitiveCalculatorInAsia,theChinesewerebecomingveryinvolvedincommercewiththeJapanese,Indians,andKoreans.Businessmenneededawaytotally〔计算〕accountsandbills.Somehow,outofthisneed,theabacuswasborn.Theabacusisthefirsttrueprecursor〔先驱〕totheaddingmachinesandcomputerswhichwouldfollow.2.2JohnNapier’sBonesIntheearly1600s,aScottishmathematiciancalledJohnNapierinventedatoolcalledNapier’sBones,whichweremultiplicationtablesinscribed〔记录〕onstrips〔条〕ofwoodorbone.16世纪，明朝万历〔1573-1620〕至清朝康熙〔1662-1723〕年间。JohnNapierJohnNapierwasafamousScottishtheologian〔神学家〕andmathematicianwholivedbetween1550and1617.

Hespenthisentirelifeseekingknowledge,andworkingtodevisebetterwaysofdoingeverythingfromgrowingcropstoperformingmathematicalcalculations.

Napierwassointelligent,manyofthelocalsbelievedhimtobeinleaguewiththeDevil.1550-1617，明朝嘉靖〔1522-1567〕至万历〔1573-1620〕年间。Napierhadagreatinterestinastronomy,whichledtohiscontributiontomathematics.Johnwasnotjustastargazer;hewasinvolvedinresearchthatrequiredlengthyandtimeconsumingcalculationsofverylargenumbers.Oncetheideacametohimthattheremightbeabetterandsimplerwaytoperformlargenumbercalculations,Napierfocusedontheissueandspenttwentyyearsperfectinghisidea.Theresultofthisworkiswhatwenowcalllogarithms〔对数〕.GreatContributionsTheTableofLogarithmsNapier’sBonesNapier'sBones2.3TheFirstArithmeticMachineAswaspreviouslynoted,determiningwhoinventedthefirstmechanicalcalculatorissomewhatproblematical.ManyreferencescitetheFrenchmathematician,physicist,andtheologian(神学家),BlaisePascalasbeingcreditedwiththeinventionofthefirstoperationalcalculatingmachinecalledtheArithmeticMachine.However,Pascal’sclaimtofamenotwithstanding〔尽管〕,theGermanastronomerandmathematicianWilhelmSchickardwrotealettertohisfriendJohannesKepleraboutfifteenyearsbeforePascalstarteddevelopinghisArithmeticMachine.(Kepler,aGermanastronomerandnaturalphilosopher,wasthefirstpersontorealize(andprove)thattheplanetstravelaroundthesuninellipticalorbits.)TheDescriptionoftheMachineIhaveconceivedamachineconsistingofelevencompleteandsixincompletesprocket〔链轮〕wheels;itcalculatesinstantaneouslyandautomaticallyfromgivennumbers,asitadds,subtracts,multipliesanddivides.Youwouldenjoytoseehowthemachineaccumulatesandtransportsspontaneously〔自然地〕atenorahundredtotheleftand,vice-versa,howitdoestheoppositeifitissubtracting...Unfortunately,theonlytwooriginalcopiesofSchickard’smachinewerelost,oneinafireandoneafterhisdeathfromplague〔瘟疫〕in1635.However,inthe1950s,scholarswhowerecollectingtheworksofKeplerfound,tucked〔卷起〕intoabook,Schickard'soriginaldrawingsofhisdevice.ThismadeitpossibleforProfessorBrunoBaronoftheUniversityofTübingentoreconstructSchickard'scalculator.1635，明朝崇祯〔1628-1644〕年间。高迎祥破凤阳，卢象升总督甘﹑陕，张献忠率部西入陕西﹐与李自成合流。WilhelmSchickardSchickardwasbornonApril22nd,1592inHerrenberg,Germany.HeattendedtheUniversityofTübingen,earningaB.A.in1609andM.A.in1611.In1613,hebecameaLutheran〔路得教会〕minister,servingseveraltownsaroundTübingen.Heservedinthiscapacityuntil1619,whenhewasappointedProfessorofHebrew〔希伯来〕attheUniversityofTübingen.HetaughtBiblicallanguagesuntil1631,whenhebecameProfessorofAstronomy.1592，明朝万历二十年，日本丰臣秀吉侵朝鲜，明兵赴援﹐大败。1609，1611，1613，国内无大事。1619，万历四十七年，萨尔浒之战﹐明军大败。WilhelmSchickard'sMechanicalCalculatorThenon-programmableSchickardmachinewasbasedonthetraditionaldecimalsystem.Leibnizsubsequentlydiscoveredthemoreconvenientbinarysystem(1679),anessentialingredientoftheworld’sfirstworkingprogram-controlledcomputer(1941).1679，清朝康熙十八年，国内无大事。2.4ForefathersofComputingForoverathousandyearsaftertheChineseinventedtheabacus,notmuchprogresswasmadetoautomatecountingandmathematics.TheGreekscameupwithnumerousmathematicalformulaeandtheorems,butallofthenewlydiscoveredmathhadtobeworkedoutbyhand.Itcouldtakeweeksormonthsoflaboriousworkbyhandtoverifythecorrectnessofaproposedtheorem.Mostofthetablesofintegrals,logarithms,andtrigonometricvalueswereworkedoutthisway,theiraccuracyuncheckeduntilmachinescouldgeneratethetablesinfarlesstimeandwithmoreaccuracythanateamofhumanscouldeverhopetoachieve.BlaisePascal’sArithmeticMachineBlaisePascal,mathematician,thinker,andscientist,builtthearithmeticmechanicaladdingmachinein1642.Hemadeeachten-teethwheelaccessibletobeturneddirectlybyaperson’shand(laterinventorsaddedkeysandacrank(曲柄)),withtheresultthatwhenthewheelswereturnedinthepropersequences,aseriesofnumberswasenteredandacumulativesumwasobtained.Thegeartrainsuppliedamechanicalanswerequaltotheanswerthatisobtainedbyusingarithmetic.1642，明朝崇祯〔1628-1644〕年间，清军攻陷松山。DisadvantagesAlthoughPascalinedidofferasubstantialimprovementovermanualcalculations,onlyPascalhimselfcouldrepairthedeviceanditcostmorethanthepeopleitreplaced!Inaddition,thefirstsignsoftechnophobia〔技术恐惧〕emergedwithmathematiciansfearingthelossoftheirjobsduetoprogress.Pascal'sdevicecouldonlyaddandsubtract,whilemultiplicationanddivisionoperationswereimplementedbyperformingaseriesofadditionsorsubtractions.InfacttheArithmeticMachinecouldreallyonlyadd,becausesubtractionswereperformedusingcomplementtechniques.BlaisePascalBornatClermontonJune19,1623,anddiedatParisonAug.19,1662.1623-1662，明朝天启〔1621-1628〕至清朝顺治〔1644-1662〕年间。1623，天启三年，阉党顾秉谦﹑魏广微入阁，魏忠贤提督东厂。1662，国内无大事。BlaisePascalAttheageoffourteen,PascalstartedtoattendMersenne’smeetings.MersennebelongedtothereligiousorderoftheMinims,andhiscellinPariswasafrequentmeetingplaceforFermat,Pascal,Gassendi,andothers.Bytheageofsixteen,PascalhadwrittenhisTreatiseonConicSections〔论圆锥截面〕,whichincludedhisfamoustheoremofhexagons〔六边形〕(Pascal'sTheorem),andpresentedittoMersenne.BlaisePascalPascalacquiredastronginterestinreligion,whichwastolastuntilhisdeath.Asaresultofhisforays〔袭击〕intotherealmofspirituality〔灵性〕,hewrotemanyreligiousworks.PerhapsthemostfamousofthesereligiousworksisPensées,acollectionofpersonalthoughtsonhumansufferingandfaithinGod.BlaisePascalLaterinhislife,additionalstudiesingeometry,hydrodynamics〔流体力学〕,andhydrostatic〔流体静力学〕andatmosphericpressureledhimtoinventthesyringe〔注射器〕andhydraulicpress〔水压〕,andtodiscoverPascal'slawofpressure.Heworkedonconicsections〔圆锥截面〕andproducedimportanttheoremsinprojectivegeometry〔投影几何〕.IncorrespondencewithFermat,hehelpedlaythefoundationforthetheoryofprobability.Finally,hislastworkwasonthecycloid〔摆线〕,thecurvetracedbyapointonthecircumference〔圆周〕ofarollingcircle.GottfriedWilhelmvonLeibniz

——InventoroftheBitandofCalculusLeibniz,sometimescalledthelastuniversalgenius,inventedatleasttwothingsthatareessentialforthemodernworld:calculus,andthebinarysystem.TheCalculusLeibnizstudiedmathematicsandphysicsunderHuygens〔惠更斯〕,andreadworksbyPascal,Fabri,Gregory,Saint-Vincent,DescartesandSluze.Hebegantostudythegeometryofinfinitesimals〔无穷小〕.ItwasduringthisperiodinParisthatLeibnizdevelopedthebasicfeaturesofhisversionofthecalculus.In1673,hewasstillstrugglingtodevelopagoodnotationforhiscalculusandhisfirstcalculationswereclumsy〔笨拙的〕.In1675,hewroteamanuscriptusingtheintegralnotationforthefirsttime.1673-1675，我国处于清朝康熙〔1662-1723〕年间。玄烨下令撤藩，吴三桂发动叛乱﹐耿精忠﹑尚之信举兵响应。In1684Leibnizpublisheddetailsofhisdifferentialcalculus〔微分学〕inNovaMethodusproMaximisetMinimis,itemqueTangentibus...inActaEruditorum,ajournalestablishedinLeipzig〔莱比锡〕twoyearsearlier.Thepapercontainedthefamiliarnotation,therulesforcomputingthederivativesofpowers,productsandquotients〔商〕.HoweveritcontainednoproofsandJacobBernoullicalleditanenigma〔谜〕ratherthananexplanation.1684，我国处于清朝康熙〔1662-1723〕年间。康熙开放海禁。Modernphysics,math,engineeringwouldbeunthinkablewithoutcalculus:thefundamentalmethodofdealingwithinfinitesimalnumbers.Leibnizdevelopeditaround1673.In1679,heperfectedthenotationforintegrationanddifferentiation〔微积分〕thateveryoneisstillusingtoday.1673，康熙十二年，玄烨下令撤藩，吴三桂发动叛乱。1679，国内无大事。TheBinarySystemThebitandthebinarysystemheinventedaround1679,andpublishedin1701.Thisbecamethebasisofvirtuallyallmoderncomputers.Unlikethedecimalsystem,onlytwodigits-0,1–suffice〔足以〕torepresentanumberinthebinarysystem.Thebinarysystemplaysacrucialroleincomputerscienceandtechnology.1679-1701，我国处于清朝康熙〔1662-1723〕年间。朱三太子案发〔1680〕；清军攻破昆明﹐吴世璠兵败自杀，三藩之乱平〔1681〕；郑克爽降清﹐台湾统一〔1683〕；中俄《尼布楚条约》签订〔1689〕；分两路出兵进剿准噶尔残部﹐噶尔丹兵败自尽〔1697〕。SignificanceOurmoderncomputersdon'tusethetendigitsofthedecimalsystemforcountingandarithmetic.TheirCPUandmemoryaremadeupofmillionsoftinyswitchesthatcanbeeitherONorOFF.Twodigits,0and1,canbeusedtostandforthetwostatesofONandOFF.Sowecanseethatcomputerscouldworkwithanumbersystembasedontwodigits.Thistypeofsystemiscalledabinarynumberingsystem.GottfriedWilhelmvonLeibnizGottfriedLeibniz’sfatherdiedwhenLeibnizwasonly6,andhewasbroughtupbyhismother,fromwhomhelearnedhismoralandreligiousvalues.Inschool,hetaughthimselfadvancedLatinandGreek,andreadAristotleandmanymetaphysics〔形而上学〕andtheology〔神学〕books.Attheageof14,heenteredtheUniversityofLeipzigtostudyphilosophyandmathematics.AfewdaysafterLeibnizwasawardedhisMaster'sDegreeinphilosophy,hismotherdied.Leibniz’sfinalyearswereovershadowed〔遮蔽〕byapriorityfightwiththepowerfulpresidentoftheRoyalSociety,IsaacNewton,whoclaimedhehadinventedcalculusbeforeLeibniz(withoutpublishingit),andwhomadefriendssigntextshewrotetosupportthisclaim.Leibniz’sStepReckonerThisnon-programmableLeibnizcomputer,thestepreckoner(1671),featuredasteppeddrumwhichfounduseinnumeroussubsequentcomputers.1671，清朝康熙〔1662-1723〕年间。国内无大事。WhatistheApplicationsofBinarySystem?IfweaskedLeibnizwhatwastheapplicationsofthebinarysystemin1701,Ibelievedhecouldnotanswerthequestion.However,in18thcentury,whocouldforecastthesystemwouldbeappliedinallofthecomputersin20thcentury?Weareficklesomuchtoday.Wealwaysaskthesimilarquestions.

——CommentedbyLiTong,Summer,2006.CharlesBabbage’sDifferenceEngineCharlesBabbagerealizedasearlyas1812thatmanylongcomputationsconsistedofoperationsthatwereregularlyrepeated.Hetheorizedthatitmustbepossibletodesignacalculatingmachinewhichcoulddotheseoperationsautomatically.Heproducedaprototypeofthis“differenceengine”by1822andwiththehelpoftheBritishgovernmentstartedworkonthefullmachinein1823.Itwasintendedtobesteam-powered;fullyautomatic,eventotheprintingoftheresultingtables;andcommandedbyafixedinstructionprogram.1812-1823，清朝嘉庆〔1796-1821〕至道光〔1821-1851〕年间。天理教攻入紫禁城﹐旋即失败〔1813〕；清廷重申禁烟令﹐严禁在澳门﹑黄埔囤放和售卖鸦片〔1821〕。TheAnalyticalEngineTheDifferenceEnginewasonlypartiallycompleted,soin1833,Babbageceasedworkingonthedifferenceenginebecausehehadabetteridea.Hisnewideawastobuildan“analyticalengine”.Theanalyticalenginewasarealparalleldecimalcomputerwhichwouldoperateonwordsof50decimalsandwasabletostore1000suchnumbers.Themachinewouldincludeanumberofbuilt-inoperationssuchasconditionalcontrol,whichallowedtheinstructionsforthemachinetobeexecutedinaspecificorderratherthaninnumericalorder〔流水号〕.Theinstructionsforthemachineweretobestoredonpunchedcards.1833，清朝道光〔1821-1851〕年间。国内无大事。CharlesBabbageBornDecember26,1791inTeignmouth,DevonshireUK,Died1871,London;Knownasthe“FatherofComputing”forhiscontributionstothebasicdesignofthecomputerthroughhisAnalyticalmachine.1791，清朝乾隆〔1736-1796〕年间，廓尔喀再次进犯日喀那么﹐洗劫扎什伦布寺，清庭派福康安入藏迎击。1871，清朝同治〔1862-1875〕年间，沙俄出兵强占新疆伊犁地区。CharlesBabbageCharlesBabbageoftenreferredtoasthe“FatherofComputing”forhiscontributionstothedevelopmentofthecomputer,seemedtohavearatherordinarychildhood.Nevertheless,hegrewuptopossessakeenintellect,withamindinterestedinnotonlymathematics,butalsophilosophy,politics,andmechanics.Whileheiswellknownforideasunderlyingthedifferenceengineandtheanalyticalengine,itisnotsowellknownthathealsowasaninventorresponsibleforthecowcatcher〔排障器〕,heliograph〔照相制版〕,standardizedpostalrates,Greenwichtimesignals,andthedynamometer〔功率计〕.GreenwichSceneryCharlesBabbageWithrespecttothefieldofphilosophyandreligion,Babbagefoundbeautyintheorderliness〔整洁性〕tobefoundwithinman,nature,andinventions.Hewasespeciallyfondoftheideaofconstructingtablescontainingstandardizedmeasurementsforthingssuchasthelengthabovinebreath〔牛呼吸〕,orthetimeittakesforapig’shearttobeat.Quantification,quantification,quantification.Thisledtohimtoinvestigatebiblicalmiracles〔圣经奇事〕.InhisbookPassagesfromtheLifeofaPhilosopherhewrotethatmiraclesarenot“thebreach〔裂口〕ofestablishedlaws,but...indicatetheexistenceoffarhigherlaws.”2.5FirstStatisticalEngineerIn1790ittooktheUnitedStates’CensusBureau〔人口调查局〕lessthanninemonthstocompletethefirstcensus.By1860thepopulationincreasedalmosttenfoldsince1790,from3.8millionto31.8million.In1887theCensusBureaucompletedtheeleventhcensussevenyearsafteritbegan.Theinabilitytoobtaincensusdatainareasonabletimeframewasamanifestationofwhatalldatacollectorshadtoface:withcurrenttechnologythescaleandcomplexityofsometabulationswouldsoonbeunthinkable.1790，清朝乾隆五十五年，国内无大事。1860，咸丰十年，太平军再破江南大营；英法联军攻陷北京﹐焚毁圆明园﹔签订《北京条约》；清廷设立总理各国事务衙门。1887,清朝光绪十三年〔1862-1875〕年间，国内无大事。Inthecaseofthecensus,asolutionwasnecessary.AregularcensuswasneededtoupholdtheintegrityoftheUnitedStatesConstitution.Duetothedynamicstateofthenation’spopulationatthetimeoftheeleventhcensustheneedtostayabreast〔并排地〕onthechangingdemography〔人口统计学〕ofthecountrywasparticularlyurgent.Duringthistimeofdramaticchangeinthenation’speople,theprimitivemethodsusedtotabulatethecensuswerenotimproved.Asaresultofthesignificantchangesinthecompositionofthepopulationandthetimelapsebetweenthecollectionandtabulation,thedataoftheeleventhcensuswasoutdatedbeforethecensuswasevencompleted.TheCensusBureau’ssolutionwastohaveacompetitiontofindanewmethodbywhichthecensuscouldbetabulated.HermanHollerithenteredandwonthiscompetition.Withhisvictory,notonlydidHollerithmakeitpossibletocompletethecensusinareasonabletimeframe,buthismethods,whichwereusedwellintothe1960s,offeredafoundationforthefuturecollectionofalltypesofdata.WithhisinventionHollerithallowedforthecreationofoneofthemostdominantcorporationsofthecomputerageandsecuredhisplaceinhistoryasthefatherofinformationprocessing.HermanHollerith’sTabulatingMachineAsteptowardautomatedcomputationwastheintroductionofpunchedcardsin1890byHermanHollerithworkingfortheU.S.CensusBureau.Hedevelopedadevicewhichcouldautomaticallyreadcensusinformationwhichhadbeenpunchedontocard.Surprisingly,hedidnotgettheideafromtheworkofBabbage,butratherfromwatchingatrainconductorpunchtickets.1890，我国处于清朝光绪〔1875-1909〕年间，张之洞在汉阳兴建铁厂。HermanHollerith’sTabulatingMachineAsaresultofhisinvention,readingerrorswereconsequentlygreatlyreduced,workflowwasincreased,and,moreimportant,stacksofpunchedcardscouldbeusedasanaccessiblememorystoreofalmostunlimitedcapacity;furthermore,differentproblemscouldbestoredondifferentbatchesofcardsandworkedonasneeded.Hollerith’stabulatorbecamesosuccessfulthathestartedhisownfirmtomarketthedevice;thiscompanyeventuallybecameInternationalBusinessMachines(IBM).HermanHollerithHermanHollerith’sparentswereimmigrantstotheUnitedStatesfromGermanyin1848afterpoliticaldisturbancesinthatcountry.SchoolwasnotveryeasyforHermandespitethefactthathewasclever.TheconsequenceoftheseschoolproblemswerethatHermanwaseventuallytakenawayfromschoolandhewastutoredprivatelyathomebythefamily.1848，我国处于清朝道光〔1821-1851〕年间，国内无大事。2.6TheFirstElectronic-DigitalComputerJohnVincentAtanasoffconceivedbasicdesignprinciplesforthefirstelectronic-digitalcomputerinthewinterof1937and,assistedbyhisgraduatestudent,CliffordE.Berry,constructedaprototypehereinOctober1939.TheAtanasoff-BerryComputerrepresentedseveralinnovationsincomputing.Itusedbinarynumbers,directlogicforcalculation,andaregenerativememory〔再生存储器〕.Itembodiedconceptsthatwouldbecentraltothefuturedevelopmentofcomputers.“ItwasataneveningofBourbon(波旁王朝)and100mphcarrides,”Atanasoffsaid,“whentheconceptcame,foranelectronicallyoperatedmachine,thatwouldusebase-two(binary)numbersinsteadofthetraditionalbase-10numbers,condensers〔电容器〕formemory,andaregenerative〔再生的〕processtopreclude〔排除〕lossofmemoryfromelectricalfailure.”Atanasoffwrotemostoftheconceptsofthefirstmoderncomputeronthebackofacocktailnapkin〔餐巾纸〕.Then,inlate1939,JohnV.AtanasoffteamedupwithCliffordE.Berrytobuildaprototype.Theycreatedthefirstcomputingmachinetouseelectricity,vacuumtubes,binarynumbersandcapacitors〔电容器〕.Thecapacitorswereinarotatingdrumthatheldtheelectricalchargeforthememory.

Berry,withhisbackgroundinelectronicsandmechanicalconstructionskills,wastheidealpartnerforAtanasoff.Theprototypewontheteamagrantof$850tobuildafull-scalemodel.TheyspentthenexttwoyearsfurtherimprovingtheAtanasoff-BerryComputer(akaABC).Thefinalproductwasthesizeofadesk,weighed700pounds,hadover300vacuumtubes,andcontainedamileofwire.Itcouldcalculateaboutoneoperationevery15seconds.Toolargetogoanywhere,itremainedinthebasementofthephysicsdepartment.ThewareffortpreventedAtanasofffromfinishingthepatent〔专利〕processanddoinganyfurtherworkonthecomputer.Whentheyneededstoragespaceinthephysicsbuilding,theydismantled〔撤除〕theAtanasoff-BerryComputer.TheAtanasoff-BerryComputerJohnVincentAtanasoffJohnVincentAtanasoffwasbornon4October1903inHamilton,NewYork.Heistheinventoroftheelectronicdigitalcomputer.Heis,alongwithbeinganInventor,aMathematicalPhysicistandaBusinessman.1903，我国处于清朝光绪〔1875-1909〕年间，日俄战争爆发﹐清政府宣布严守“局外中立”，黄兴﹑宋教仁等组织革命团体华兴会于长沙。2.7TheFirstAutomaticDigitalComputer-------HarvardMarkIBythelate1930spunched-cardmachinetechniqueshadbecomesowellestablishedandreliablethatHowardAiken,incollaborationwithengineersatIBM,undertookconstructionofalargeautomaticdigitalcomputerbasedonstandardIBMelectromechanicalparts.Aiken’smachine,calledtheHarvardMarkI.TheHarvardMarkIConceivedinthe1930sbyHowardH.Aiken,agraduatestudentintheoreticalphysicsatHarvardUniversity,theASCC(IBMAutomaticSequenceControlledCalculator)wasdevelopedandbuiltbyIBMduringWorldWarII.Aikenhadinitiallyproposedalarge-scaledigitalcalculatortothefacultyofHarvard’sphysicsdepartmentandlatertookhisideatotheMonroeCalculatingMachineCompanyandthentoIBM.TheHarvardMarkIJamesBryce,deanofIBM’sinventorsandscientists,likedtheconcept,andIBMPresidentThomasJ.Watsonagreedtoback〔支持〕theprojectin1939.BryceassignedClairD.Lake,aprolific〔多产的〕IBMinventor,toserveaschiefengineerandAiken'schiefcontact.LakewasablyassistedbyBenjaminM.DurfeeandFrankE.Hamilton.TheMainCreatorsShownin1944are(fromlefttoright)FrankE.Hamilton,ClairD.Lake,HowardH.AikenandBenjaminM.Durfee.TheHarvardMarkIProgressontheASCCatIBM’sNorthStreetLaboratoryinEndicott,N.Y.,wasslowedbyotherwartimedemands,butthemachineeventuallywasshippedtoHarvardinFebruary1944,assembledandformallypresentedtotheuniversityonAugust7ofthatyear.Bythen,IBMhadspentapproximately$200,000ontheprojectanddonated〔捐赠〕anadditional$100,000toHarvardtocovertheASCC'soperatingexpenses.TheHarvardMarkITheASCC--whichbecameknownmorepopularlyasthe"MarkI"atHarvard--broughtBabbage'sprinciplesoftheanalyticalenginealmosttofullrealization,whileaddingimportantnewfeatures.Consistingof78addingmachinesandcalculatorslinkedtogether,theASCChad765,000parts,3,300relays〔继电器〕,over500milesofwireandmorethan175,000connections.

TheHarvardMarkIIthandled23-decimal-placenumbers(words)andcouldperformallfourarithmeticoperations;moreover,ithadspecialbuilt-inprograms,orsubroutines,tohandlelogarithmsandtrigonometricfunctions.Length:51feet.Height:eightfeet.Weight:nearlyfivetons.TheHarvardMarkIUsedbytheNavyduringthewartorunrepetitivecalculationsfortheproductionofmathematicaltables,theMarkIoperatedatHarvardfor15yearswhileassistinginthesolutionofcomplexproblemsinvariousdisciplines.Ultimately,aportionofthemachinewassenttotheSmithsonianInstitutioninWashington,D.C.,whileHarvardretained〔保存〕asectionasanexhibit.SomeoftheASCC'selectromechanicalcountersarepreservedtodayinIBM'scollectionofhistoricalcomputingdevices.TheHarvardMarkI2.8KonradZuse’sZ1,Z3,Z4TheZ1istodayconsideredtobethefirstfreelyprogrammable〔自由编程，不是免编程〕computeroftheworld.Itwascompletedin1938andfinancedcompletelyfromprivatefunds.KonradZuse'sfirstcomputer,builtbetween1936and1938,wasdestroyedinthebombardmentofBerlininWWII,togetherwithallconstructionplans.In1986,KonradZusedecidedtoreconstructtheZ1.TheZ1containedallpartsofamoderncomputer,e.g