语用学理论与应用

Pragmatics:TheoriesandApplications

LecturedbyHongyaFanTextbookstochoosefrom:Levinson,S.C.1983.Pragmatics.Cambridge:CUPLeech,G.N.1983.PrinciplesofPragmatics.London:Longman.Grundy,P.DoingPragmatics,London:EdwardArnold,1995.Mey,J.Pragmatics:AnIntroduction.Oxford:BlackwellPublishers,1996.

Yule,G.1996.Pragmatics.London:OUPVerschueren,J.1999.UnderstandingPragmatics.

何兆熊2000《新编语用学概要》上海：上海外语教育出版社何自然1997《语用学与英语学习》上海：上海外语教育出版社Chapter1:InvitationstoPragmatics

1.1WhatisPragmatics?

1.2TheOriginandDevelopmentofPragmatics1.3TheScopeofPragmaticStudy

Discussionquestions1.1WhatisPragmatics?TheLatinrootofpragma-means“todo,toperform,toact”.1.1.1Thedefinitionsofpragmaticsvary,herearesomeofthem:Levinson(1983:6-27)a.Pragmaticsisthestudyofthoserelationsbetweenlanguageandcontextthataregrammaticalized,orencodedinthestructureofalanguage.

b.Pragmaticsisthestudyofallthoseaspectsofmeaningnotcapturedinasemantictheory.c.Pragmaticsisthestudyoftherelationsbetweenlanguageandcontextthatarebasictoanaccountoflanguageunderstanding.d.Pragmaticsisthestudyoftheabilityoflanguageuserstopairsentenceswiththecontextinwhichtheywouldbeappropriate.

e.Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowutteranceshavemeaningsinsituations.(Leech,1983:X)f.Pragmaticsisthescienceoflanguageseeninrelationtoitsusers.(1993:5)g.Pragmaticsisconcernedwiththestudyofmeaningascommunicatedbyaspeaker(orwriter)andinterpretedbyalistener(orreader).(1996:3)

Pragmaticscanbebrieflydefinedasthestudyoflanguageinuseorhowlanguageisusedinhumancommunication.1.1.2Semanticsandpragmatics

Semanticstraditionallydealswithmeaningasadyadicrelation,asin[1],whilepragmaticsdealswithmeaningastriadicrelation,asin[2].[1]WhatdoesXmean?[2]WhatdidyoumeanbyX?

Therearegenerallythreeschoolsconcerningtherelationshipbetweensemanticandpragmaticstudy.SemanticismcomplementarismPragmaticismWordsincontrastinbetweensemanticsandpragmatics

rule-governedformalproductstaticsentencemeaningsenserepresentationcontext-free

principle-governedfunctionalprocessdynamicutterandemeaningforceinterpretationcontext-bound1.2TheOriginandDevelopmentofPragmatics1.2.1Pragmatism,pragmaticismandpragmatics—howaretheyrelatedtoeachother?

Pragmatism:RepresentedbyWilliamJames,itisaphilosophicalschooloriginatedattheendofthe19thcentury,whichbelievesintheonlytestofthetruthofphilosophicalprinciplesistheirpracticalresult.

Pragmaticism:thephilosophicalbeliefofAmericanphilosopherCharlesPierceincontrastwithpragmaticalism.Theterm“pragmatics”Theterm“pragmatics”wasfirstintroducedintotheliteraturebytheAmericanphilosopherCharleswilliamMorrisin1937.InhisFoundationsoftheTheoryofSignspublishedin1938,morrisexpressedhisideaagain.Thatis,semioticshasthreebranches:syntactics,semanticsandpragmatics.Syntacticsstudies“theformalrelationofsignstooneanother”,semantics“therelationsofsignstotheobjectstowhichthesignsareapplicable”,andpragmatics“therelationofsignstointerpreters.”1.2.2DevelopmentofpragmaticsThedivisionofsemioticsbyMorriswasimmediatelyacceptedbyotherscholars.Pragmaticshasgainedfastdevelopmentinthe50sand60s.TheJournalofpragmaticswassetupin1977inHolland,whichsymbolizedthefoundationofpragmaticsasanewly-arisingdiscipline.1.3TheScopeofPragmaticStudy

1.3.1GeneralPragmaticsPragmalinguisticsSociopragmaticsgrammarsociology

relatedto

relatedto

1.3.2Micropragmaticsvs.MacropragmaticsTheformerisgrammarandstructurerelatedandmainlypractisedbytheAmericanandBritisnpragmaticians,whichisconsideredtobethedynamicstudyofmeaning.ThelatterisdonebytheEuropeanscholarsandconsideredtobeaperspectiveonlanguageuse,whichincludesthefieldsofcross-culturalpragmatics,interlanguagepragmatics,socialpragmatics,cognitivepragmaticsandsoon.Chapter2:Deixis2.1Whatisdeixis2.2Deicticcenter2.3Differentuses2.4Descriptiveapproaches2.4.1Persondeixis2.4.2Timedeixis2.4.3Placedeixis2.4.4Discoursedeixis2.4.5Socialdeixis2.1Whatisdeixis?

Theterm“deixis”isborrowedfromtheGreekwordforpointingorindicating.

Deixisisthewayinwhichthereferenceofcertainelementsinasentenceisderterminedinrelationtoaspecificspeakerandaddresseeandaspecifictimeandplaceofutterance.

Thetermscoverstheuseofdemonstratives,firstandsecondpersonpronouns,tense,specifictimeandplaceadverbslikenowandhere,andavarietyofothergrammaticalfeaturestieddirectlytothecircumstancesofutterance.2.2Deicticcenter

Theegocentricityofdeixis

一人物中枢是说话人；二时间中枢是说话人说话的时间；三地点中枢是说话人在说话时间所处的空间；四话语中枢是一句话中说话人当时正讲到的地方；五社交中枢是说话人相对于说话对象的社会地位和等级。2.3Differentuses

gesturaluse

deicticuse(exophoric)symbolicuseDeicticwordsanaphoricnon-deicticuse(endophoric)cataphoric

otheruse

Gesturalvs.symbolicuseTheformeristheuseofdeicticwordswiththeaccompanyofparalinguisticfeatures,whilethelatterisnot.Heisnotthepresident.Heis.Heisthesecretary.Thiscityishighlycongested.Wecannotaffordaholidaythisyear.Putthepianohere.No,nothere.Buthere.

EndophoricuseJohngothomelateandhewasverytired.IwasborninLondonandhavelivedthereeversince.Hereisthenineo’clocknews.Ibetyouhaven’theardthisstory.

OtheruseYoucannotlosewhatyouneverhad.Youdon’twanttogotoLondon.2.4Descriptiveapproaches2.4.1PersondeixisFirst-persondeixiswe-inclusive-of-addresseewe-exclusive-of-addressee[1]Let’sgo,shallwe?[2]Letustryagain.[3]Letusknowthetimeofyourarrival.[4]We’regoing.Howaboutyou?[5]Maywegoin?[6]Wewillourselfrewardthevictor.[7]ThepresentpaperisonlyasurveyofChomsky’sTGG.Wewilldiscussitsnewdevelopmentinanotherpaper.[8]Let’sgiveyouahand.[9]PolishNiemamybiletunothave(1stpl.)ticketWedon’thaveaticket.[10]您安心养病吧！我们过几天再来看您。[11]您安心养病吧！等您病好了，咱们一起去。[12]我们都是有几十年教龄的老教师，应该能理解学生的心情。[13]你要记住，我们是学生，我们的重要任务是学习。[14]同志，咱们这儿有台历吗？

Second-persondeixis[15]You1canvacuumwhileyou2washthedishes,andkeepyour3haton—Iwillgetthegroceries.[16]Youcannotlosewhatyouneverhad.[17]要想知道梨子的味道，你就得亲口尝一尝。

Third-persondeixishe/she,it,this,one,they,those[18]A:That’sahippopotamus.B:Howdoyouspellit?A:H-i-p-p-o-p-o-t-a-m-u-s,andthatisarhinoceros.B:Andhowdoyouspellit?A:R-h-I-n-o-c-e-r-o-s.[19]宝宝乖，宝宝快别哭。[20]Whohasfrightenedourbaby?2.4.2Temporaldeixis

Basicconcept

Calendrictimevs.non-calendrictimeCalendrictimeunitsareusuallynamedbypropernounsorcommonnouns,e.g.2000,August,Monday,morning,week;whilenon-calendrictimeunitsarenamedonlybycommonnouns,e.g.1day,2years,3weeks,ect.

Theformerisusuallyusednon-deictically,whilethelatteristheopposite.ex:OnthemorningofAugust6,1945,Hiroshimawasutterlydestroyedbythefirstatomicbombusedinwartime.Butthedivisionisnotclear-cut.E.g:sixo’clock23:00GMT7:45localtime

Codingtime(CT)vs.ReceivingTime(RT)CTisthemomentofutterance(orinscription)andRTisthemomentofreceptionorreceivingtime.Complexitiesarisewhenthereisadeparturefromtheassumptionofdeicticsimultaneity,e.g.inletterwriting,orthepre-recordingofmediaprogrammes.

NounofTemporalDeixistoday,tomorrow,yesterday,etc.Theyemploypre-emptive(先用现象）usage,whichmeamsthedeicticusageofthesewordsprecedestheusageofotherdefiniteandabsolutewordsorphrasesindicatingtime.ex:a.I’llseeyouonThursday.—saidonWednesday.b.Themeetingwillbeginateighto’clock.--saidat7:55.

Comparativelyspeaking,thechoiceofdeicticusageandnon-deicticusageoftimedeixisisrelatedtothetimedistanceandthelevelofformalityofthegenre.

PhrasesofTemporalDeixis--this+certaindayinaweekIftheweekbeginswithSunday,onlythis+WednesdaythroughSaturdayareused.IftheweekbeginswithMonday,onlythis+WednesdaythroughSundayareused.--next+X(commonnounorpropernoun)I’llseeyounextThursday.

TenseM-tensevs.L-tensetensevs.aspect2.4.3SpatialDeixis

Purespatialdeixishere,there,up,down,above,below,nearby,behind,etc.

Phrasesofspatialdeixisex:thissideoftheboxthatsideofthetreeThereisakitteninfrontofthetree.Thecatisbehindthetree.BobisthemantotheleftofMark.

Verbsindicatingspatialdeixiscomegohome-basedusageex:Icameoverseveraltimestoyourplace,butyouwerenotin.Weareorganizingapartyatourplace.Willyoubecoming?

有空来（/去）我家玩。

Empatheticdeixis/Deicticprojection(移情指示）Speakersseemtobeabletoprojectthemselvesintootherlocationspriortoacturallybeinginthoselocations.

Itmaybethatthetrulypragmaticbasisofspatialdeixisisactuallypsychologicaldistance.E.g:thatmanoverthereIdon’tlikethat.(aperfumebeingsniffedbythespeaker)

Non-deicticusage--Weweretakenintoareceptionroom.Therewewerewarmlywelcomedbythepresidentoftheinstitute.--Onhisbirthday,hewasgivenatoytrain.Thatwasjustthethinghehadbeenwantingallthetime.2.4.4Discoursedeixis话语中某些词语被用于指包含这句话在内的整个篇章的某一部分。2.4..4.1this&thatex:Thisiswhathedidtome.Herippedmyshirtandhitmeonthenose.Theyhadacaraccident.Thatwastheworstwecouldexpect.

Adjectivesindicatingtimelast,next,preceding,following,previous,etc.EX:thelastparagraphthenextsentencethefollowingsectionthepreviouswords

Conjunctionsbut,therefore,onthecontrary,still,well,besides,aboveall,etc.EX:Iprefertostayathome.It’scoldoutside.Besides,it’sgoingtosnow,I’mafraid.Normallywedonotenrollstudentsunderthespecifiedage.However,yourcasewillbetreateda