世界银行-缩小埃塞俄比亚身份证所有权方面的性别差距：调查结果和建议

Authorized

e

PublicDisclosur

PublicDisclosureAuthorizedAuthorized

uthorized

INIDOWNERSHIP

INETHIOPIA

FINDINGSANDRECOMMENDATIONS

CLOSINGTHE

GENDERGAP

DisclosureA

blic

Pu

©2024InternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/TheWorldBank

1818HStreetNW,Washington,DC20433

Telephone:202-473-1000;internet:

Somerightsreserved.

ThisworkisaproductofthestaffofTheWorldBankwithexternalcontributions.Thefindings,interpreta-tions,andconclusionsexpressedinthisworkdonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsofTheWorldBank,itsBoardofExecutiveDirectors,orthegovernmentstheyrepresent.TheWorldBankdoesnotguaranteetheaccuracy,completeness,orcurrencyofthedataincludedinthisworkanddoesnotassumeresponsibilityforanyerrors,omissions,ordiscrepanciesintheinformation,orliabilitywithrespecttotheuseoforfailuretousetheinformation,methods,processes,orconclusionssetforth.Theboundaries,colors,denominations,andotherinformationshownonanymapinthisworkdonotimplyanyjudgmentonthepartofTheWorldBankconcerningthelegalstatusofanyterritoryortheendorsementoracceptanceofsuchboundaries.

Nothinghereinshallconstituteorbeconstruedorconsideredtobealimitationuponorwaiveroftheprivi-legesandimmunitiesofTheWorldBank,allofwhicharespecificallyreserved.

RightsandPermissions

ThisworkisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttribution3.0IGOlicense(CCBY3.0IGO)

http://cre

-

/licenses/by/3.0/igo

.UndertheCreativeCommonsAttributionlicense,youarefreetocopy,distribute,transmit,andadaptthiswork,includingforcommercialpurposes,underthefollowingconditions:

Attribution—Pleasecitetheworkasfollows:Casher,C.andClark,J.2024.ClosingtheGenderGapinIDOwnershipinEthiopia:FindingsandRecommendations.Washington,DC:WorldBank.License:CreativeCommonsAttributionCCBY3.0IGO.

Translations—Ifyoucreateatranslationofthiswork,pleaseaddthefollowingdisclaimeralongwiththeattribution:ThistranslationwasnotcreatedbyTheWorldBankandshouldnotbeconsideredanofficialWorldBanktranslation.TheWorldBankshallnotbeliableforanycontentorerrorinthistranslation.

Adaptations—Ifyoucreateanadaptationofthiswork,pleaseaddthefollowingdisclaimeralongwiththeattribution:ThisisanadaptationofanoriginalworkbyTheWorldBank.ViewsandopinionsexpressedintheadaptationarethesoleresponsibilityoftheauthororauthorsoftheadaptationandarenotendorsedbyTheWorldBank.

Third-partycontent—TheWorldBankdoesnotnecessarilyowneachcomponentofthecontentcontainedwithinthework.TheWorldBankthereforedoesnotwarrantthattheuseofanythird-party-ownedindividualcomponentorpartcontainedintheworkwillnotinfringeontherightsofthosethirdparties.Theriskofclaimsresultingfromsuchinfringementrestssolelywithyou.Ifyouwishtoreuseacomponentofthework,itisyourresponsibilitytodeterminewhetherpermissionisneededforthatreuseandtoobtainpermissionfromthecopyrightowner.Examplesofcomponentscaninclude,butarenotlimitedto,tables,figures,orimages.

AllqueriesonrightsandlicensesshouldbeaddressedtoWorldBankPublications,TheWorldBankGroup,1818HStreetNW,Washington,DC20433,USA;e-mail:

pubrights@

.

CLOSINGTHE

GENDERGAP

INIDOWNERSHIP

INETHIOPIA

FINDINGSANDRECOMMENDATIONS

ClaireCasher

JuliaClark

THEWORLDBANK

IBRDOIDA

IDENTIFTONFORDEVEOPMENT

1.4D

Contents

Acronymsiii

Abstractiv

AboutID4Dv

Acknowledgmentsvi

ExecutiveSummary1

GenderandIDinEthiopia1

StudyDesign2

KeyFindings:KebeleIDSystem2

KeyFindings:Fayda4

ConclusionandKeyRecommendations5

Introduction7

GlobalTrendsinGenderandID7

GenderandIDinEthiopia8

StudyDesign11

ResearchQuestions11

ResearchMethods12

KeyFindings:KebeleIDSystem13

NatureoftheKebeleIDGenderGap13

ImpactoftheKebeleIDGenderGap18

ReasonsfortheKebeleIDGenderGap21

KeyFindings:Fayda30

PerceptionsofFayda30

StrategiesforClosingtheKebeleIDGenderGap31

ConclusionandKeyRecommendations38

Bibliography40

Appendix1:ID4D-FindexQuestions42

Appendix2:ID4D-Findex2021-2022Results44

Appendix3:ID4D-Findex2017Results46

Appendix4:KeyInformantInterviewSample50

Appendix5:FocusGroupDiscussionSampling51

CLOSINGTHEGENDERGAPINIDOWNERSHIPINETHIOPIAi

FINDINGSANDRECOMMENDATIONS

ii

Figures

Figure1:SummaryofbarriersinthekebeleIDsystem3

Figure2:SummaryofsuggestionsforgenderinclusivityinFayda4

Figure3:CountrieswithlargegendergapsinIDownership8

Figure4:KebeleIDownership,reasonsfornon-ownership,anddifficulties

ofnon-ownership,bygender(ages18+)14

Figure5:LikelihoodofhavingakebeleID,byvariouscharacteristics15

Figure6:GenderdifferencesinlikelihoodofhavingakebeleID,other

characteristicsheldconstant16

Figure7:SummaryofbarriersinthekebeleIDsystem28

Tables

Table1:ComparisonofthekebeleIDandFayda9

Table2:Researchmethods12

Table3:Beliefsthatinformgendernormsandpotentialrelationshipsto

IDownership23

Boxes

Box1.NoteonID4D-Findex2017data17

Box2.OtherprominentIDsinEthiopia18

Box3.ProgressiveviewsontheimportanceofanIDforwomen19

Box4.Intersectionaleffects29

Acronyms

AGILAfricaGenderInnovationLab

CEDAWConventionontheEliminationofallformsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen

CRCivilRegistration

CSOCivilSocietyOrganization

ECCEarlyChildcare

FGDFocusGroupDiscussion

ICTInformationandCommunicationTechnology

IDIdentification

ID4DIdentificationforDevelopment

IDPInternallyDisplacedPerson

KIIKeyInformantInterview

LICLow-incomeCountry

MOUMemorandumofUnderstanding

NIDPNationalIDProgram

PSNPProductiveSafetyNetProgram

SDGSustainableDevelopmentGoal

CLOSINGTHEGENDERGAPINIDOWNERSHIPINETHIOPIAiii

FINDINGSANDRECOMMENDATIONS

ivAbstract

Abstract

I

nEthiopia,womenare15percentagepointslesslikelythanmentopossessakebeleID,theprimaryproofofidentitydocumentusedinthecountry.ThisreportunveilsfindingsfromastudythataimstograspthereasonsbehindthisgendergapinIDownershipandoffersrecommendationsforovercom-

ingthesebarriersinFayda,thenewdigitalIDsystemlaunchedbytheGovernmentofEthiopiain2021.ExecutedbytheWorldBankinpartnershipwithEthiopia’sNationalIDProgram(NIDP),thestudyfirstusesstatisticalanalysisofID4D-FindexdatatoillustratethenatureoftheIDownershipgapanditsramificationsforwomen.Subsequently,throughdeskresearchandoriginalqualitativedataobtainedfromfocusgroupdiscussionsandkeyinformantinterviews,thereportdelvesintofourcategoriesofpotentialreasonsforthegap:legalandpolicybarriers,socialandcommunitybarriers,economicandproceduralbarriers,andinformationandknowledgebarriers.Intheconcludingsection,thereportoffersthreekeyrecommendationsforintegratinggenderinclusivityintotheFaydaprogram,drawingfromtheresearchfindingsandinputsgatheredfromqualitativeresearchparticipants.

AboutID4D

T

heWorldBankGroup’sIdentificationforDevelopment(ID4D)Initiativeharnessesglobalandcross-sectoralknowledge,WorldBankfinancinginstruments,andpartnershipstohelpcountriesrealizethetransformationalpotentialofidentification(ID)systems,includingcivilregistration(CR).Theaimistoenableallpeopletoexercisetheirrightsandaccessbetterservicesandeconomicoppor-tunitiesinlinewiththeSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs).Thisisespeciallyimportantascoun-triestransitiontodigitaleconomies,digitalgovernments,anddigitalsocieties,whereinclusiveandtrustedmeansofverifyingidentityareessentialtoensureaccessibilityanddataprotection.

ID4DoperatesacrosstheWorldBankGroupwithglobalpracticesandunitsworkingondigitaldevel-opment,socialprotection,health,financialinclusion,governance,gender,anddataprotection,amongothers.Toensurealignmentwithinternationalgoodpracticesformaximizingdevelopmentbenefitsandminimizingrisks,ID4Disguidedbythe10PrinciplesonIdentificationforSustainableDevelopment,whichhavebeenjointlydevelopedandendorsedbytheWorldBankGroupandover30globalandregionalorganizations(see

).

ID4Dmakesthishappenthroughitsthreepillarsofwork:

1.Thoughtleadership,research,andanalyticstogenerateevidenceandfillknowledgegaps.

2.Globalpublicgoodsandconveningtodevelopandamplifygoodpractices,fostercollabora-tionacrossregionalandglobalstakeholders,andsupportknowledgeexchange.

3.CountryandregionalactionthroughfinancialandtechnicalassistancetorealizeinclusiveandtrustedIDandCRsystems.

TheworkofID4DismadepossiblethroughsupportfromtheBillandMelindaGatesFoundation,theUKGovernment,theFrenchGovernment,theNorwegianAgencyforDevelopmentCooperation(Norad),andtheOmidyarNetwork.

TofindoutmoreaboutID4Dandaccessourotherpublications,visit

.

CLOSINGTHEGENDERGAPINIDOWNERSHIPINETHIOPIAv

FINDINGSANDRECOMMENDATIONS

Acknowledgments

T

hisstudywasledbytheauthorsofthisreport,ClaireCasherandJuliaClark,undertheguidanceofVyjayantiDesaiandinpartnershipwiththeNationalIDProgram(NIDP)ofEthiopia.Theauthorswishtoacknowledge,withdeepappreciation,themanypeoplewhocontributedtothisendeavor.ThisincludesLamiaNaji(WorldBank)forcontributionstotheprimaryresearch;AliciaHammond,NiklasBuehren,andVictoriaEsquivel-Korsiak(WorldBank)forinsightfulpeerreviewcomments;theteamatLateriteresearchfirmforleadingthefocusgroupdiscussionsandanalysis;andDuinaReyes(WorldBank)forthegraphicdesignthatbringsthesefindingstolife.

Theteamisespeciallygratefultotheindividualswhoparticipatedinthefocusgroupdiscussionsandtherepresentativesofcivilsocietyandprivateorganizationswhogaveinterviewsandjoinedavalida-

tionworkshop.Thestudybenefitedgreatlyfromalltheperspectivessharedthroughoutthisprocess.

ThisresearchwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutcontinuedsupportfromID4D’sMulti-DonorTrustFundpartners,includingtheBillandMelindaGatesFoundation,theUKGovernment,theFrenchGovernment,theNorwegianAgencyforDevelopmentCooperation(Norad),andtheOmidyarNetwork.

viAcknowledgments

ExecutiveSummary

GenderandIDinEthiopia

Beingabletoprovewhoyouaremattersforequitable,sustainabledevelopment.1Yetmanypeopleareunabletoobtainofficialformsofidentification(ID)thatprovidetrustedproofoftheiridentityinboththepublicandprivatesectors.2

Forwomeninparticular,accesstoIDisavitalenablerofempowerment,agency,andmobility(HanmerandElefante2019).Womenarestilllesslikelytohavefull-timejobs,morelikelytoworkinlower-payingsectors,andoverrepresentedamongthoseworkingintheinformalsector(WorldBankGroup2015).IDcanserveasagatewaytogreateragencyandmobilitybyenablingaccesstodigitalfinancialservicesandinnovativegovernment-to-personpaymentsthatincreasewomen’scontrolovertheirfinances.

InEthiopia,womenareapproximately15percentagepointslesslikelythanmentohaveakebeleID,accordingtothe2022roundoftheID4D-Findexsurvey.ThekebeleIDisapaper-basedidentitydocumentissuedbykebeles,thelowestadministrativeunitinEthiopia.TheyserveasadefactonationalIDforEthiopiaandarerequiredtoaccessmanyservicesandrightsthatrequireproofofidentityorresidence.

AnewIDsystemforEthiopia—Fayda—presentsanopportunitytoaddressseveralinclusionissues,includingthegendergapinID.TheGovernmentofEthiopiahaslaunchedafive-yearpro-gram(2021–2026)tointroduceaninclusiveandtrustedfoundationalIDsystemknownas‘Fayda’,whichmeans‘value’inmanylocallanguages.Theteamimplementingtheproject,theNationalIDprogram(NIDP),hasalreadyregistered3.8millionindividualsandiscurrentlyscalinguptoanationalmassregistrationcampaign.TheprogramaimstoregistertheentireresidentpopulationofEthiopiaby2027.

NIDPiscommittedtobuildinganIDsystemthatisinclusiveforwomenandothermarginalizedgroups.TheteamhaspartneredwithID4DtomakeEthiopiathefirstcasestudyinaforthcomingglobalseriesofstudiesonthegendergapinID.Thisreportistheproductofthatcollaboration.

1ThishasbeenwidelyrecognizedthroughSustainableDevelopmentGoal(SDG)Target16.9:“toprovidelegalidentityforall,includingbirthregistration”by2030.

2‘Official’IDisprovidedbyoronbehalfof,orrecognizedby,governments,andincludesboth‘legal’ID(whichprovidesproofoflegalidentity)and‘functional’IDrequiredforaspecificsectororpurpose(forexample,voting,travel,social

security).

CLOSINGTHEGENDERGAPINIDOWNERSHIPINETHIOPIA1

FINDINGSANDRECOMMENDATIONS

StudyDesign

ThescopeofthisstudyencompassesboththeexistingkebeleIDsystemandtheforthcomingFaydasystem—withtheobjectiveofidentifyinganyissuesorbarriersinthecurrentsystemtoavoidreplicatingtheminthenewone.Thefollowingthemesandquestionsguidethisresearch:

Whatarewomen’sexperienceswiththekebeleIDsystem?

•Whatisthevalueofidentification(specificallythekebeleID)forwomeninEthiopia?

•WhataretheeffectsofnothavingakebeleIDforthosewomeninEthiopiawhodon’t?

•WhatarethereasonsthatwomeninEthiopiaarelesslikelytohavethekebeleIDthanmen?

•WhenevaluatingbarriersthatpreventsomewomenfromgettingakebeleID,thefollowingcate-goriesareused:LegalandPolicyBarriers,SocialandCommunityBarriers,EconomicandProceduralBarriers,InformationandKnowledgeBarriers.

Whatarewomen’sperceptionsof,andsuggestionsfor,Fayda?

•HowdowomeninEthiopiaperceivetheplannedFaydasystem?HowwastheexperienceofthosewhoparticipatedintheFaydaregistrationpilot?

•WhatpotentialsolutionscouldbeimplementedtoclosethegendergapinIDownershipwithFayda?

Theauthorsemployedamixedmethodsapproachtoanswerthequestionsabove.Thestudy,whichwasconductedbetweenJanuaryandJuly2022,comprisedaliteraturereview,statisticalanaly-sis,stakeholdermapping,keyinformantinterviews(KIIs),andfocusgroupdiscussions(FGDs).TheID4D-Findexdataarerepresentativeatthenationallevel,allowingfornovelquantitativeanalysis.Unfortunately,thequalitativedatagatheredismorelimitedincoverage,sosomeofthefindingsofthisreportcannotbeextrapolatedtoallofEthiopia.Nonetheless,thisresearchrepresentsanimport-antfirststeptowardfullyunderstanding—andclosing—thegendergapinIDownershipinthecountry.

KeyFindings:KebeleIDSystem

ThekebeleIDiswidelyconsideredthemostimportantIDinEthiopia—butitisgenerallyseenasmoresalientformenthanforwomen.AlthoughtherewasagreementamongresearchsubjectsthatthekebeleIDisthemostimportantIDdocumentinEthiopia,KIIandFGDrespondentspointedoutthatthetransactionsitisimportantforaremorerelevanttomen.Forexample,formalemploy-mentoftenrequiresakebeleID—butwomenaremorelikelytoworkinthehomeortheinformalsector.ThekebeleIDdoesnotcomeupinmostwomen’sdailylives.

Nonetheless,nothavingakebeleIDpresentschallengesforaperson(manorwoman)livinginEthiopia.SpecificexamplesgivenbyrespondentsofthingsthatonecannotdowithoutakebeleIDincludethefollowing:openabankaccount,applyforaloan,buylandorahouse,accesspublichealth

2ExecutiveSummary

LEGALANDPOLICYBARRIERS

>Lawsaregenerallygenderequitableindesign,butnotalwayseffectivebecauseofalackofenforcementmechanisms.

>Lawsdonotalwaysaddressthestructural

inequitiesbeyondtheirsubjectmatter,whichlimitstheireffectivenessinachievinggenderequity.

ECONOMICANDPROCEDURALBARRIERS

>TheindirecttravelandtimecostsofIDregis-trationaredisproportionatelyburdensomeforwomen.

>Eveniftheycanmakethetrip,theregistrationrequirementsareoftenharderforwomentomeetthanmen—especiallythosewhomovefromplacetoplace.

>KebeleIDregistrationistiedtohome

ownership,whichnegativelyaffectswomen.

>ThepriceofthekebeleIDisabarrierfor

women,whohavelessmoneyattheirdisposalthanmen.

>KebeleshavemuchdiscretioninID

administration,whichcanhelporhinderwomendependingontheircircumstances.

care,completeone’seducation,vote,runforpublicoffice,andgetapassporttotravelabroadlegally.Interviewsubjectsfromcivilsocietyorganizations(CSOs)thatserveruralwomensharedthatformostoftheirbeneficiaries,thefirstmotivationtogetakebeleIDistryingtoopenabankaccounttopartic-ipateinanotherprogramandfindingthattheylacktherequiredproofofidentity.

ThebarrierstokebeleIDownershipidentifiedthroughthisstudycanbegroupedintofourcategoriesforanalysis:LegalandPolicyBarriers,SocialandCommunityBarriers,EconomicandProceduralBarriers,andInformationandKnowledgeBarriers.Asummaryofthebarriersidentifiedineachcategoryarepresentedbelow.Itisimportanttonotethatwomenarenotamonolithicgroup,andtheimpactsofthesebarrierswillvaryforeachindividual.Barriersarealsolikelytobeespeciallyonerousforwomenbelongingtomarginalizedgroupswhoseotherdisadvantagesarecompoundedbytheirsex.Whilethisresearchdoesnotexplorealloftheseintersectionalities,ittouchesonanum-berofcompoundchallengesfacedbywomenwhoaremigrantworkersandfromlow-incomebackgrounds.

FIGURE1:

SummaryofbarriersinthekebeleIDsystem

SOCIALANDCOMMUNITYBARRIERS

>Gendernormsdecreasewomen’sdemandforIDbecauseformalidentificationisassociatedwithmalenessandworkingoutsidethehome.

>Men’straditionalroleas‘headofhousehold’isaparticularlyacutebarriertokebeleID

ownershipforwomenbecauseregistrationisdoneviathehousehold.

>WomencanusuallychoosewhethertogetakebeleID,accordingtorespondents—butthetrueextentoftheiragencyisunclear.

INFORMATIONANDKNOWLEDGEBARRIERS

>WomenhavelessaccesstoinformationaboutID,becauseitisusuallysharedinmale-dominatedsettingslikecommunitymeetings.

>Womenhavelessaccesstomobilephonesandtheinternetthanmen.

>Withlesseducationandliteracyonaverage,itisharderforwomenwhodowantakebeleIDtonavigatetheprocess.

Source:Authors’analysisofquantitativeandqualitativedataandrelevantliterature.

CLOSINGTHEGENDERGAPINIDOWNERSHIPINETHIOPIA3

FINDINGSANDRECOMMENDATIONS

REGISTRATIONPROCESS

>Offsettheuniqueindirectcostsof

registrationforwomen,especiallyrelatingtotravelandchildcare,asmuchas

possible.

>Eliminateanyfinancialcostsofregistration.

ENABLINGENVIRONMENT

>Advocateforgenderequitablelegislation.

>Provide,orsupportexistinginitiativesfor,digitalliteracytrainingforwomen.

>Lookforsynergieswithotherwomen’sempowermentinitiatives.

KeyFindings:Fayda

Thisdatawasgatheredin2022,whenNIDPwaspilotingFaydaonasmallscale.Sincethen,theprogramhassteadilyexpandeditsregistrationcampaignandcommunicationsefforts.Also,asnotedabove,thesampleforqualitativeresearchwasnotnationallyrepresentative.Theperceptionssumma-rizedinthisreportshouldthereforebeinterpretedasastartingpointfordiscussionratherthanadefinitivesnapshotofpublicopinion.

ThebenefitsofdigitalIDandbiometricidentificationarewellrecognized.AllKIIrespondentsnotedthattheuseoffingerprintswillbeanimprovementoverthecurrentsystembecauseitwillsolvethecommonissueofduplicateIDsandwillstrengthenauthenticationmeasures.TheyperceivedthedigitalIDasmorereliableandtransparentthannon-digitaloptions.RespondentsalsoexpressedthatdigitalIDwillbeintegraltocreateefficienciesfordatastorageandsharing.

ThereisskepticismastowhetherEthiopiaisreadyfordigitalID.WhileKIIrespondentssawthetheoreticalvalueofadigitalIDsystem,theywerelessconfidentthatitwouldworkinpracticeinEthiopia.Assummarizedbyone:“ThisIDisgoodforourcountry.Forourgrowth,forplanning,forany

FIGURE2:

SummaryofsuggestionsforgenderinclusivityinFayda

SOCIALIZATION

>EmphasizeFayda’sbenefits,uniquefeatures,andvalueasahumanright.

>DeliverinformationaboutFaydathrough

existingnetworks,withreinforcingcampaignsviamassmediaandinformationand

communicationtechnology(ICT).

>Bepurposefulaboutthesexesofboththecampaignersandtheaudience.

>Createvisible‘rolemodels’forfemaleparticipationinFayda.

PROGRAMMANAGEMENT

>Seekinputfromwomen,especiallyinruralareas.

>Tailorsocializationandregistrationstrategiestoeachlocalcontext.

>Collectsexdisaggregatedmonitoringdata.

>Setgenderquotasforleadershipgroups.

Source:Authors’analysisofqualitativedata.

4ExecutiveSummary

purpose.Butwhetheritwillworkgenuinely,Idon’tknow.”SomeKIIrespondentscalledintoquestionwhetherthetechnicalinfrastructureinruralareasissufficienttoruntheregistrationandauthentica-tionprocesses.OneCSOleaderalsoquestionedwhetherthisshouldbeprioritizedat