高等教育和就业中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)WhatDoEducationalMismatchesTellUsAboutSkillMismatches?ACross-countryAnalysisIntroductionThereisasubstantialresearchliteraturewhichdealswithvariousaspectsofimperfectmatchingbetweengraduates’educationalattainmentandtheeducationalrequirementsofjobs.Intheeconomicliteratureonover-education,over-utilisationandunderutilisationmoreespecially,therelationshipbetweenhighereducationandemploymentisinterpretedintermsoftheextenttowhichthehighereducationsectorprovidesgraduateswiththeknowledgeandskillstomatchemploymentneeds(seeBorghans&DeGrip,2000;Büchel,DeGrip&Mertens,2003).Thismatchisbelievedtoaffectproductivity,earnings,andworksatisfaction.Mostofthisresearchconcentratedontheeffectsofworkinginajobthatdoesnotmatchone’slevelofeducation,theunderlyingassumptionbeingthatthisimposesalimitationontheuseofskills.Inaddition,manystudiesalsotakeintoaccounttheeffectsofworkinginajobforwhichadifferentfieldofstudyisrequired.Thisarticleseekstoanalysehowfartheknowledgeacquiredinhighereducationcorrespondstothatrequiredonthejob.Thecentralissueiswhataperceivedmismatchmeansintermsofthematchbetweenrequiredandavailableskills.Doeducationalmismatchesnecessarilyimplymismatchesbetweenacquiredandrequiredskills?Toanswerthisquestion,fivecountriesthatparticipatedinthe1998CHEERSstudywillbeexaminedinmoredetail.Particularattentionwillbepaidtothedifferencesbetweenthesecountries.Fivecountrieswereselectedwhichdifferedfromeachotherintermsofboththestructureoftheirnationallabourmarketsandoftheirhighereducationsystems:Spain,Germany,theNetherlands,theUKandJapan.Therearewidespreadbeliefsaboutdifferencesandcommonelementsinthesecountries.GermanyandtheNetherlandsareexamplesofcountrieswherethematchisgenerallybelievedtoberatherclose.IntheUKandJapan,itisgenerallythoughttoberatherlooseandindirectandemployerstendtogivegreatervaluetogenericskills.Spainissomewhereinbetween.Thesecountriesalsodifferconsiderablyintheincidenceofbothover-andunder-education.Althoughtheimpressiveevolutionofthesupplyofhighlyeducatedpeoplehasnotbeenmatchedbyanequalincreaseinthesupplyofskilledvacancies,countriesshowavariedpatterninthisrespect.IncountriessuchastheUKandGermany,studieshavefoundovereducationtobemorepronouncedthanundereducation,whileintheNetherlandsandSpain,somestudieshavefoundtheopposite(seeforcountry-specificstudiesDolton&Vignoles,1998;Groot,Maassen&Brink,2000;Alba-Ramirez,1993;Alba-Ramirez&Blásquez,2003;SeealsotheoverviewbySloane,2003).TheoreticalBackgroundThehumancapitaltheorywasdevelopedintheearly1960stoexplaintherelationshipbetweenindividuals’levelofschoolingandtheirearningsinthelabourmarket.Educationdevelopsskills(‘humancapital’)thatmakegraduatesmoreproductiveintheirjobsandthisisreflectedinhigherearnings(Becker,1964;Mincer,1974).Thehumancapitaltheoryisbasedonthreemainpropositions(Rumberger,1994):1theprimaryroleofformalschoolingistodevelopthehumancapital,ortheknowledgeandskills,offutureworkers;2thelabourmarketefficientlyallocateseducatedworkerstofirmsandjobswheretheyarerequired;3thehumancapitalofworkersincreasestheirproductivityintheworkplacewhichisthenrewardedwithhigherearnings.Althoughthistheoryhasbeenwellsupportedbytheresultsofresearch,ithasbeencriticised.Someofthemaincriticismshavecomefromscholarswhoemphasisethedemandsideofthelabourmarket.Onesuchcriticismisthatitignoresimportantqualitativedifferencesinthetypesofknowledgeandskillsproducedinhighereducation.Althoughthetheoryacknowledgesdifferencesingeneralskillsthatcanbeappliedtoawidevarietyofjobs,thereareimportantindependentdimensionstohumanabilitiesandskillsthatcovernotonlythecognitivearea,butalsothephysicalandsocialareas(Gardner,1983).Anothercriticismistheeffectsofmismatchesbetweengraduates’acquiredskillslevelsandthosethatarerequiredintheworkplace.Theyarethoughttohaveadverseeffectsonbothproductivityandearnings.Morethanthestandardhumancapitalmodel,thejobassignmentmodelisveryexplicitabouttherelevanceofthedemandsideofthelabourmarket.ThismodelasdevelopedbySattinger(1993)isbasedonthepropositionthatthereisanallocationprobleminassigningheterogeneousworkerstojobsthatdifferintheircomplexity.Theallocationisregardedasoptimalwhenthemostcompetentworkersareassignedtothemostcomplexjobandthelesscompetentworkersareassignedtosimplerjobs.Inotherwords,ifyoucangettherightpersonintherightplace,youwilloptimiseearnings,productivitygains,jobsatisfaction,etc.Inthecaseofamismatch,thelimitationsoftheworkerorthejobimposeanunnecessaryrestrictionontheproductivitythatcanbeachieved.Employeesworkingbelowtheireducationallevelwillfindthatthecharacteristicsofthejobimposealimitationtotheuseoftheirskillsandthereforetoproductivityandearnings.Conversely,employeesworkinginajobabovetheirlevelwilllacksomeoftheskillsneededtorealisetheproductivepotentialofthejob.Animportantassumptionoftheassignmentmodelisthatdifferentcategoriesofeducationandjobscanbecharacterisedashavingfixedlevelsofavailableandrequiredknowledgeandskills.Inotherwords,educationalmismatchesimplyskillmismatches.Althoughtheassignmentmodelinitselfseemshighlyplausible,thisbasicassumptioncanbequestioned.UsingdatafromasurveyofgraduatesfromDutchuniversitiesandhigherprofessionalinstitutions,AllenandVanderVelden(2001)madeadistinctionbetweenaformalmismatchbetweenactualandrequirededucation(educationalmismatch)andbetweenactualandrequiredskills(skillmismatch).Twokindsofskillmismatchwereconsidered.Graduateswereasked(1)whethertheircurrentjobofferedsufficientscopetousetheirknowledgeandskills(skilluse),and(2)whethertheyfeltthattheywouldperformbetterintheircurrentjobiftheyhadadditionalknowledgeandskills(skilldeficit).Theirstudyrevealedonlyaratherweakrelationshipbetweeneducationalmismatchesandthesetwoformsofskillsmismatches.Theirresultsprovidestrongsupportfortheassumptionthatthematchbetweenindividualhumancapitalandthecharacteristicsofthejobmatters.Contrarytotheassumptionsoftheassignmenttheory,however,educationalmismatchesareneitheranecessarynorasufficientconditionforskillmismatches.ItappearedthatahighnumberofDutchgraduateswhowereworkinginjobsthatwerenotcloselyrelatedtotheirleveland/orfieldofstudynonethelessstatedthattheymadegreatuseoftheirknowledgeandskillsintheirwork.Furthermore,onlyasmallproportionofthewageeffectsofeducationalmismatcheswasaccountedforbyskillmismatches.Thesehadastrongnegativeimpactonjobsatisfaction,unlikeeducationalmismatches.CHEERSDataItisworthconsideringwhethertheCHEERSdataprovidefurtherinsight.InhisconcludingchapteroftheforthcomingbookontheCHEERSproject,U.Teichlerquestionstheassumptionthataclose‘match’betweeneducationandemploymentcategoriesisagoodindicatorofgraduates’preparationfortheirprofessionaltasks.Hegoesontoclaimthatemploymentoutsidegraduates’traditionalprofessionalareascannotbetakenasanindicationthatstudyisirrelevantforemploymentandwork.Hebasesthisclaimonthefindingthatatleastathirdofthegraduatesworkinginapositionforwhichalowerlevelofeducationwouldhavebeenmoreappropriatereportedthattheymadeuseofsomeoftheknowledgetheyacquiredduringtheircourseofstudyintheirworkassignments(Teichler,forthcoming,pp.277–279).Concentratingonfivecountriesthatparticipatedinthe1998CHEERSstudy,namelySpain,Germany,theNetherlands,theUKandJapan,wewillattempttoreplicatetheresultsofAllenandVanderVelden(2001).Wewillfirstdescribetheextentofeducationalandskillmismatchesandtherelationshipbetweenthetwointhefivecountriesandthenexaminethelabourmarketeffectsofmismatchesintermsofhourlywages,jobsatisfactionandtheintentiontoquit.MethodTwomajorissueswillbeanalysed:Therelationshipbetweentheeducation-jobmatchontheonehandandtheuseofknowledgeandskillsontheother;Theeffectsofeducationalandskillmismatchesonwage,jobsatisfactionandon-the-jobsearch.RelationshipbetweentheEducation-JobMatchandUseofKnowledgeandSkillsSeveralmethodswillbeemployedtomeasuretheextentofmatching.Indeterminingeducationalmismatches,graduateswereaskedtoindicatewhatwasthemostappropriatelevelofcourseofstudy/degree.Answercategorieswere:higher,samelevel,lowertertiarylevel,andbelowtertiarylevel.Graduatesfromuniversitiesandnon-universityHEinstitutionswererepresentedinallfivecountries.EffectsofMismatchesonWage,JobSatisfactionandOn-the-jobSearchSomeregressionmodelswillbeusedtomeasuretheeffectsofeducationalandskillmismatchesonthedependentvariables.Intheexplanatoryanalysis,wewillassesstheeffectsonthefollowingdependentvariables:naturallogarithmofhourlywage,jobsatisfaction,andon-the-jobsearch.Ineachoftheseanalyses,thedependentvariableofthepreviousanalysiswillbeincludedinordertoaccountfortheireffect.Relevantcontrolvariableswillbetakenintoaccount.ConclusionOuranalysesindicatethateducationalandskillmismatchesareindeedrelated,asonewouldexpect.Graduatesworkingbelowtheirleveland/oroutsidetheirownfieldusefewercompetencesthanthosein‘matching’jobs.Graduatesworkingabovetheirleveloroutsidetheirfieldexperiencemoreskillshortagesthanthosein‘matching’jobs.However,educationalmismatchesbynomeansimplymismatchesbetweenavailableandrequiredknowledgeandskills,asclaimedbythejobassignmentmodel.Manygraduatesin‘matching’jobsnonethelessreportskillmismatches.Furthermore,asubstantialproportionof‘overeducated’graduatesreporthighlevelsofskilluseandfewskillshortages.Themultivariateanalysesrevealedstrongwageeffectsofover-education.Thewageeffectsofskillmismatchesweremuchweaker.Interestingly,inGermanyandtheUK,therewerepositivewageeffectsofskillshortages.Thisseemstoindicatethatskillshortagesdonotindicatesomuchabelow-parworkerasahigh-poweredjob.Jobsatisfactionwasinfluencedbybotheducationalandskillmismatches.Thepropensitytochangejobsappearsonlyweaklyrelatedtomismatchesofeitherkind.TheresultsoftheanalysesofjobsatisfactionandpropensitytochangejobsdeviatesomewhatfromthoseofAllenandVanderVelden,whofoundstrongeffectsofskillmismatchesonthesevariables.Theresultswerebroadlysimilaracrossthefivecountries,butthereweresomeinterestingdifferences.Itwasnotablethattheeducation-jobmatchwasbestinthosecountrieswherehighereducationwasstronglygearedtothelabourmarket(GermanyandtheNetherlands),butthattherelationbetweeneducationalandskillmismatcheswasweakestinthosecountries.Furthermore,thewageeffectsofover-educationwerealsorelativelyweakinGermanyandtheNetherlands.Anothernotabledifferencewasthatunder-educatedworkersinGermanyandJapanshowedsurprisinglyhighlevelsofskillshortagesincontrasttotheotherthreecountries.Finally,thepropensitytochangejobswasstronglydependentonbotheducationalandskillsmismatchesinGermanyandtheUK,oneducationalmismatchesinSpainandtheNetherlands,andonneitherinJapan.REFERENCESALBA-RAMIREZ,A.(1993)MismatchintheSpanishlabormarket:overeducation?JournalofHumanResources,27,pp.259–278.ALBA-RAMIREZ,A.&BLÁZQUEZ,M.(2003)Typesofjobmatch,overeducationandlabourmobilityinSpainpp.65–93.ALLEN,J.&VANDERVELDEN,R.(2001)Educationalmismatchesversusskillmismatches:effectsonwages,jobsatisfaction,andon-the-jobsearch,OxfordEconomicPapers3,pp.434–452.BECKER,G.S.(1964)HumanCapital:ATheoreticalandEmpiricalAnalysiswithspecialReferencetoEducation(NewYork,NBER).教育不匹配能告诉我们技能不匹配？一次横越全国分析引言目前有大量的研究文献，其中涉及各方面的毕业生的教育程度和教育的工作要求之间的不完善匹配。在经济学文献中关于过度教育，过度使用和使用不足，尤其是在高等教育界在何种程度上提供了毕业生的知识和技能，以符合就业需求方面，解释了较高的教育和就业之间的关系（见Borghans&DeGrip，2000;Büchel,DeGrip&Mertens，2003年）。这种匹配被认为是影响生产力，收入和工作满意度。大部分集中在这项研究工作的工作，一个人的教育水平，基本假设是，这会带来限制使用技能不匹配的影响。此外，许多研究也考虑到在工作中的工作是必需的，不同的研究领域的影响。本文试图分析学到的知识在高等教育对应的工作到底有多么需要。中心问题是什么感知的不匹配意味着必需的和可用的技能之间的比赛。教育不匹配必然意味着收购及所需技能之间的不匹配？要回答这个问题，这五个国家参加了1998年芝华仕研究会研究更多的细节。将特别关注这些国家之间的差异。不同于对方在本国的劳动力市场和其较高的教育系统结构：西班牙，德国，荷兰，英国和日本五个国家被选中。有广泛的信仰差异和这些国家的共同元素。德国和荷兰的匹配被普遍认为是比较接近的国家的例子。在英国和日本，人们普遍认为是相当松散，间接和雇主往往共通能力提供更大的价值。西班牙是介于两者之间。这些国家既过剩又不足，教育的发生率也有很大的不同。虽然令人印象深刻的演变还没有相匹配的高学历人才的供给等量增加供应的熟练工职位空缺，国家在这方面显示各种不同的模式。在一些国家，如英国和德国，有研究发现过度教育比未受充分教育更加明显，而在荷兰和西班牙，一些研究发现相反（具体见国家研究Dolton&Vignoles,1998;Groot,Maassen&Brink,2000;Alba-Ramirez,1993;Alba-Ramirez&Blásquez,2003;Sloane,2003).理论背景在20世纪60年代初开发的人力资本理论用来解释个人的教育水平和他们在劳动力市场上的盈利之间的关系。教育发展技能（“人力资本”），使毕业生在他们的工作中更富有成效，其中的体现就是能获得更高的收益(Becker,1964;Mincer,1974)。人力资本理论是基于三个主要命题（Rumberger，1994）：1正规学校教育的主要作用是开发未来的劳动者的人力资本或知识和技能;2劳动力市场能有效地把受过教育的工人分配到公司和需要他们的岗位上去；3劳动者的人力资本提高他们在工作场所的生产力，然后将获得更高的回报。虽然这一理论的研究成果得到了很好的支持，但是也受到批评。一些批评主要来自强调劳动力市场需求方的学者们。这样的批评它忽略了知识和技能在高等教育的各类重要的质的差别。尽管理论上承认可应用于各种各样的就业机会一般技能的差异，然而人的能力和技能有重要的独立的维度，不仅包括认知领域，也有物理和社会领域（加德纳，1983）。另一种批评是毕业生掌握的技能水平和那些在工作场所需要掌握的技能之间不匹配的影响。他们认为这会影响生产力和盈利。超过标准的人力资本模型，作业分配模型与劳动力市场需求方具有非常明确的相关性，这种模式是由Sattinger在1993年开发的，它是基于在异构工人分配到不同的工作，在他们的复杂性，有一个分配问题上的主张。被视为最佳的分配时，最能干的工人被分配到最复杂的工作和能力不足的工人被分配到简单的工作。换句话说，如果你能在合适的地方得到合适的人，你就可以优化收益，提高生产力和工作满意度等。而在不匹配的情况下，工人或工作的局限性施加不必要的限制，可以实现生产率。低于他们的教育水平工作的员工会发现，工作的特点施加限制使用他们的技能影响生产率和收入。相反，员工从事在自己的水平以上的工作，缺乏实现作业的生产潜力所需的技能。分配模型的一个重要假设是可以被定性为具有固定提供不同类别的教育和就业机会所需的知识和技能水平。换句话说，教育的不匹配意味着技能不匹配。虽然分配模型本身似乎很有道理，但是这个基本的假设还是受到质疑。荷兰大学高等专业院校的毕业生的调查数据，阿伦和范德费尔登（2001年）在实际和必要的教育（教育不匹配）和正式之间的不匹配实际和所需的技能（技能错配）之间做了区分，并对两种技能错配进行了审议。毕业生被问到（1）是否为自己在目前的工作中使用知识和技能（技能使用）提供了足够的空间。（2）他们是否觉得，如果他们有更多的知识和技能（技能赤字）。那么他们在目前的工作会表现得更好。他们的研究发现只有一个相当薄弱的教育不匹配和这两种形式的技能不匹配之间的关系。他们的研究结果提供了强有力的支持假设个体人力资本之间的匹配和工作事项的特点。但是，分配理论的假设相反，教育不匹配的既不是技能不匹配必要条件也不是充分条件。荷兰毕业生大量的工作在自己的水平和/或仍然表示，他们利用他们的知识和技能，在他们研究领域密切相关的工作中取得了很大成绩。此外，只有一小部分的教育不匹配的工资效应占技能不匹配。这些措施不像教育不匹配对工作的满意度产生了强烈的负面影响。C