亚开行-印度女性劳动力的统计画像（英）

No.2023-17(December)

brief

policy

KeyPoints

•InIndia,thefemalelabor

forceparticipationrateis

higherinruralareasthaninurbanareas.

•Thedistributionofjobs

ishighlyskewedtoward

agricultureintherural

economy,whichdrivesdownwagesforwomenworkers.

•Low-earning,unpaidfamilyworkandownaccount

workconstitutethehighestproportionoffemale

employmentinruralIndia,whileurbanareashave

mostlyhigher-payingregularsalariedjobs.

•Informalskilltrainingdoesnotleadtoanincreaseinwagesforwomenworkersascomparedtoformalskilltraining.

•VeryfewwomenworkersinIndiareceiveanysocialsecuritybenefits.

©2023AsianDevelopmentBankInstitute

ISSN2411-6734

DOI:

/10.56506/

BDXR3681

Thisworkislicensedundera

CreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike4.0InternationalLicense.

AStatisticalPortraitofthe

IndianFemaleLaborForce

CledwynFernandez,Fellow,IndianCouncilforResearchon

InternationalEconomicRelations(ICRIER),India

HavishayePuri,ResearchAssistant,ICRIER,India

1.Introduction

Thefemalelaborforceparticipationrate(FLPR)inIndiahasseenadecliningtrendsincethe1990sdespitestrongeconomicgrowth,declineinfertility,expansionofeducation,andimprovedaccesstoinfrastructure(Klasens2019).TheFLPRisanimportantmetricforaneconomyasitleadstoimprovedandsustainedgrowth.AccordingtoMcKinseyGlobalInstitute’srecentreport,ThePowerofParity:AdvancingWomen’sEqualityinAsia-Pacific,1morethan70%ofthepotentialGDPopportunitycomesfromincreasingwomen’sparticipationinthelaborforceby10percentagepoints.Therefore,itisimportantthatIndialeverageitslargefemalepopulationbyencouragingthemtojointhelaborforce.

WhilemostG20economieshavesustainedtheirFLPRlevelsovertheprevious2decades,India’strajectoryhasbeentheopposite.In2021,IndiarecordedthelowestFLPRacrossallG20economies(Figure1),showingaseculardeclinefrom2000.Onobservinghistoricaltrends,thispatternofdecliningFLPRcanbetracedbackmuchfurtherinIndia.ThecountryrecordedanFLPRof24.1%in1955,whichincreasedto33%in1972.2Sincethen,theFLPRhasseenagradualandconsistentdeclinetoabout23%2017.3However,thisdecliningtrendhasbeguntoreverse,withtheFLPRimprovingto33%in2021.4Onfurtherdisaggregationofthedata,wefindthattheincreaseinFLPRisbeingprimarilydrivenbylocationandindustry-specificfactors,suchastheincreasingparticipationofwomeninagriculturewithintheruraleconomy.

Againstthisbackground,thispolicybriefseekstoaddress2questions:(1)WhatexplainsthechangingtrendofFLPRfrom2017–2018to2021–2022and(2)WhatexplainstheheterogeneityacrossdemographyandindustriesinIndiawithregardtotheFLPR.Toanswerthesequestions,weusetheestimatesofthelatestroundofthePeriodicLabourForceSurvey(PLFS),conductedbetweenJuly2021andJune2022.

1

/featured-insights/gender-equality/the

-power-of-parity-advancing-womens-equality-in-asia-pacific.

2Nikore,M.2019.WhereAreIndia’sWorkingWomen?TheFallandFallofIndia’sFemaleLabourParticipationRate.LondonSchoolofEconomics.

3PeriodicLabourForceSurvey2017–18.

4PeriodicLabourForceSurvey2021–22.

ADBInstitute

Figure1:FemaleLaborForceParticipationRateAcrossG20Countries(%)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

68

64

60

56

53545353

5050

494848

4344

40

33

30

28

25

23

20

17

555655

5051

5253

48

62

52

59

52

28

51

51

24

People'sRepublicofChina

AustraliaRussianFederation

G7

RepublicofKorea

BrazilIndonesiaSouth

Africa

ArgentinaMexicoTürkiyeSaudi

Arabia

India

Avg.2001–2007Avg.2008–2014Avg.2015–2021

Note:TheG7averageincludestheEuropeanUnion.

Source:WorldBank.

ThissurveyhasbeenconductedannuallybytheNationalStatisticsOffice(NSO)since2017–2018andiswidelyusedtoestimateIndia’slabormarketstatisticsacrossruralandurbanareas.

2.GeneralTrends

TheFLPRtrendisbroadlyexplainedthroughdemandandsupplysidefactorsinacademicliterature.Kapsosetal.(2014)explainthelowFLPRinIndiathroughdemand-sidefactors.Theauthorspointtothefactthatgendersegregationofoccupationandthelackofgrowthindemandforlaborinsectorsdominatedbywomenhaveresultedinlowparticipation.Inessence,boththenumberandtypeofjobsmatter(DasandDesai2003).KhatiwadaandVeloso(2019)discusshownewtypesofworkindevelopingAsiainfluenceaccesstoemergingopportunities.Theyfurtheremphasizehowmenhavetraditionallyhadaccesstoagreaterproportionoftheseopportunities.Similarly,MehrotraandParida(2017)pointoutthattheuseofseeddrillers,harvesters,andthreshershasdisproportionatelydisplacedfemaleworkersfromtheworkforce.Onthesupplyside,KlasenandPieters(2015)identifytheforcesforthestagnatingFLPRinIndiausingmicro-leveldata.Theauthorsconcludethatmaleincomeandeducationreducesfemalelaborforceparticipation.

Thepositiveeffectofhighereducationismoderatedbyopposingfactorslikesocialconstraints.Thus,factorssuchashouseholdincome,societalandculturalnorms,andmigrationcouldaffecttheFLPRinIndia.Inthissection,wepresentsomegeneralobservationsforthefemalelaborforceinIndiabyanalyzingitaccordingtogeography,demographics,industry,andoccupations.

TheFLPRabovetheageof15hasshownsolidimprovementinIndiafrom23%in2017–2018to33%in2021–2022.Remarkably,thistrendhasbeenconsistentthroughoutthevariousstates,withveryfewexceptions.However,thereisacleardividewithintheFLPRacrossstates.WhilestateswithinthenortheastofthecountryandthoseprimarilyadjacenttotheHimalayaslikeHimachalPradesh(66%),Uttarakhand(33%),Sikkim(58%),Meghalaya(50%),andNagaland(51%)havearelativelyhigherFLPRascomparedwiththeIndianaverage(33%);statesalongtheIndo-GangeticplainslikePunjab(24%),Haryana(19%),Delhi(12%),UttarPradesh(26%),Bihar(10%),andWestBengal(28%)haveperformedpoorlyascomparedwiththerestofthecountry.StatessituatedinsouthernandwesternpartsofthecountryarebetterperformersthantherestofIndia,withTelangana(45%)andAndhraPradesh(43%)leadingtheFLPRmetric,followedbyTamilNadu(41%),Maharashtra(38%),Kerala(37%),andGujarat(34%).

ADBIPolicyBriefNo.2023-17(December)2

ADBInstitute

Giventhat79%ofIndia’sfemalelaborforceissituatedinruralareas,theFLPRtrendisdominatedbystructuralchangesintheruraleconomy.TheFLPRinruralareashasincreasedatafasterpacefrom25%in2017–2018to37%in2021–2022ascomparedwithachangefrom20%to24%inurbanareas.AsKapsosetal.(2014)observe,thelabormarketdifferssignificantlybetweentheruralandurbanregionsofthecountry.Thesedifferingoutcomesareprimarilydrivenbythedominanceofagricultureinruralareasandthediversifiedcompositionofsectorswithinurbanareas.Asaresult,sectoraldivergenceisthedrivingfactorofthedifferingpaceofFLPRchangeinboththeregions.Thus,fortheremainderoftheanalysis,wedividethefemalelaborforceintoruralandurbancohortsandexaminetheresultsforeach.

2.1DemographicIndicators

AsshowninFigure2,wefindthattheruralFLPRisconsistentlyhigherthantheurbanFLPRacrossallincomedeciles(asproxiedbythedecilesofUsualMonthlyPerCapitaExpenditure[UMPCE]decileclasses).AnotherinterestingfindingisthattheFLPRishigherasthepopulation5getsricherinIndia.TheFLPRis20%in

Figure2:IncomeDecileClassesandFLPRinIndia,2021–2022

IncomeDeciles

90–100

80–90

70–80

60–70

50–60

40–50

30–40

20–30

10–20

0–10

25.7

34.8

21.6

33.7

20.7

30.7

19.7

29.1

18.9

27.6

18.1

26.2

17.4

24.6

16.4

23.6

15.3

22.3

14.6

20.1

010203040

FLPR(%)

UrbanRural

Source:Authors’computationofthePLFSdata.

thebottom10%ofruralpopulationbutchangesto35%inthetop10%.Thischangeisrelativelysimilarinurbanareas,wheretheFLPRis15%inthebottom10%oftheurbanpopulationand26%inthetop10%.ThistrendisconsistentacrossmoststatesinIndia,withafewoutliers(TableA2.1intheonlineAppendix2).

Furthermore,intheruraleconomy,thevastmajorityofthefemalelaborforceisemployedinagricultureacrossallincomedeciles(Figure3).However,thisproportiondeclinesasthepopulationgetsricher,from81%inthebottom10%ofthepopulationto63%inthetop10%.Thisiscomplementedbyaconsistentincreaseofwomenworkersinmanufacturingandservicesaswethemoveuptheincomedeciles.Withinurbanareas,theproportionofwomenworkinginmanufacturingandrelatedindustriesconsistentlydeclinesfrom33%forthelowestincomedecileto13%forthehighestincomedecile.Conversely,theproportionofwomenworkingintheservicesindustryincreasesfrom46%forthelowestincomedecileto85%forthehighestincomedecile.Agriculturefollowsasimilartrajectoryaswithruralareas,withtheshareofwomenworkersdecliningasthepopulationgetsricher.

Consistentwithindustrytrends,thehighestFLPRinruralareasisfoundinhouseholdsthateithersupplycasuallabortoagricultureorareself-employed(Figure4).Incontrast,withinurbanareas(withahighshareoftheservicesector),thehighestFLPRiswithinhouseholdsthatearnaregularsalary.Wetakedetailedlookatfemaleemploymenttrendswithindifferentsectorsoftheeconomyinthenextsubsection.

ComparingtheFLPRacrosseducationlevels,weseeaU-shapedrelationship(inbothruralandurbanareas);wheretheFLPRreachesitsnadirforwomenhavingachievedsecondary/highersecondaryeducationandisrelativelyhigherfortheoppositeends(Figure5a).Inbothrural(59%),andurban(48%)areas,itishighestforwomenwhohaveearnedadiplomaorcertificate.Thosewithapostgraduatedegreeorabovecomenext(47%inurbanareasand42%inruralareas).

LookingattheFLPRacrossmaritalstatus,wefindthatmarriedwomenhaveasignificantlyhigherFLPRthanwomenwhohaveneverbeenmarriedinruralareasandalmostsimilarparticipationratewithinurbanareas.(Figure5b).OnanalyzingtheFLPRbyagegroup(Figure6),weseethattheFLPRisthehighest

5Thisresultisforahouseholdlevelanalysis.

AStatisticalPortraitoftheIndianFemaleLaborForce3

IncomeDeciles

Rural

0–1010–2020–3030–4040–5050–6060–7070–8080–90

90–100

Urban

0–1010–2020–3030–4040–5050–6060–7070–8080–90

90–100

3

2927

23

UrbanHHType

Regular

Others

Casuallabourwage/salaryearningSelf-employed

RuralHHType

Others

Casuallabourin:non-agriculture Casuallabourin:agriculture Regularwage/salaryearningSelf-employedin:non-agricultureSelf-employedin:agriculture

51

ADBInstitute

Figure3:DistributionofFemaleWorkersbyIncomeDecileClassesAcrossSectors,2021–2022(%)

0102030405060708090100

81

84

83

81

78

77

76

74

70

63

33

39

32

33

34

33

30

28

72

85

16

15

52

52

11

11

10

11

6

6

6

9

10

43

46

65

61

53

57

22

21

21

13

13

13

18

10

13

12

15

15

17

14

14

11

8

8

3

7

7

uAgricultureuIndustryServices

Source:Authors’computationofthePLFSdata.

Figure4:FLPRbyHouseholdTypeAboveAge15,2021–2022(%)

1

36

33

28

43

0102030405060

FLPR(%)

Source:Authors’computationofthePLFSdata.

ADBIPolicyBriefNo.2023-17(December)4

5

0

Currentlymarried

Nevermarried

Currentlymarried

Widowed

Separated

Nevermarried

Urban

Widowed

Separated

Rural

13

10

6

ADBInstitute

Figure5a:FLPRbyEducationLevelAbove15Years,2021–2022(%)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Notliterate

Literatewithoutformalschooling

Literate:primaryandbelow

Middle

Secondary

Highersecondary

Diploma/certicatecourse

Graduate

Postgraduateandabove

UrbanRural

Source:Authors’computationofthePLFSdata.

Figure5b:FLPRbyMaritalStatusforWomenAbove15Years,2021–2022(%)

70

61

60

53

50

42

40

34

30

24

24

23

18

20

10

Figure6:FLPRbyAgeGroup,2021–2022(%)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

5656

54

52

47

44

3334

34

31

32

30

29

28

24

25

23

13

RuralUrban

15–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445–4950–5455–5960–6465andabove

Source:Authors’computationofthePLFSdata.

AStatisticalPortraitoftheIndianFemaleLaborForce5

ADBInstitute

(approximately55%)withintheagesubsetof35–54fortheruraleconomy.However,fortheurbaneconomy,theFLPRisuniformlydistributedacrossallagecategories.Thus,onecaninferthattheFLPRishighlyskewedtowardmiddle-agecategoriesintheruralareas,butmoremoderatelydistributedacrossawideragecohortintheurbancontext.

2.2SectoralIndicators

Asdiscussedearlier,FLPRamongwomenworkersgrewatamuchfasterpaceinruralareasascomparedwiththeurbanregionsofthecountryfrom2017–2018to2021–2022.Thebulk(80%)ofthisincreaseinruralareashasbeenduetotheincreaseinemploymentofwomeninagriculture.Incontrast,theincreaseinurbanareasisspreadacrossawiderangeofsectorsincludingmanufacturingandrelatedindustries;trade,retailandwholesaleservices;agriculture;andbusinessandprofessionalservices.Thus,whiletheoverallemploymentrateisonlyametric,itiscriticaltounderstandthequalityofjobsthatwomenareengagedin.Asectoralanalysisacrossruralandurbanareasprovidesasnapshotofthedifferentindustriesinwhichthefemalelaborforceisinvolved.

AsshowninFigure7,intheruraleconomy,76%ofthejobsforwomenareintheagriculturalsector(having

increasedfrom73%in2017–2018),while8%ofthewomenareemployedacrossmanufacturingindustries.Attheurbanlevel,thefemaleworkforceismorebroadlydistributedacrossvarioussectors.Manufacturingandrelatedindustriesmakeuproughly25%offemaleemployment,closelyfollowedbyserviceindustrieslikeeducation(12%);trade,retailandwholesale(12%);householdservices(10%);andbusinessandprofessionalservices(9%).Interestingly,agricultureonlyaccountsfor11%offemaleemploymentinurbanIndia.Apartfromafewoutliers,thestate-wisedistributionoffemaleemploymentbyindustry(FigureA2.1intheonlineAppendix2)showsasimilartrend,whichisconsistentwiththenationaltrend.

GiventhatthemanufacturingsectorisamajoremployerofwomeninIndia,wefurtherdisaggregatetheemploymenttrendswithinmanufacturingandrelatedindustriesforurbanandruralIndia(Figure8).Thetrendisuniformacrossbothruralandurbancontexts,withavastmajorityoffemalejobsbeingconcentratedintextiles;leatherandapparel;andfood,beverages,andtobaccoindustries.Withintheseindustries,thelargestsharesoffemaleemploymentareinapparelmanufacturingandtobacco.Otherimportantindustriesincludemetalandpaper-basedproductindustriesinruralareasandminingaswellaschemicalandpharmaceuticalindustriesinurbanareas.

Figure7:ShareofFemaleEmploymentbyIndustry,2021–2022(%)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

3

3

3

3

8

10

3

9

12

12

76

25

11

3

5

6

Rural

Urban

Agriculture

Industry

Education

Trade,Retail,andWholesaleServices

BusinessandProfessionalServices

Construction

HouseholdServices

Healthcare

OtherServices

HotelsandRestaurants

PublicAdministrationandDefense

TransportServices

Media,Entertainment,andCulture

TelecomandBroadcasting

Source:Authors’computationofthePLFSdata.

ADBIPolicyBriefNo.2023-17(December)6

23

India32

ADBInstitute

Figure8:ShareofFemaleEmploymentinManufacturingandRelatedIndustries,2021–2022(%)

Urban

Rural

2244641758

5462951

0102030405060708090100

Automobiles

CokeandRenedPetroleum

Mining

MetalandMetalProducts

Computer,Electronics,andElectricEquipment

UtilityServices

ChemicalsandPharmaceuticals

Printing,Wood,andPaper

Others

Non-MetalandNon-MetalProducts

Food,Beverage,andTobacco

Textiles,Leather,andApparel

Source:Authors’computationofthePLFSdata.

Wealsolookatgenderratios6acrossruralandurbanIndia(Figure9).Atanationallevel,womencontributeto23%oftotalemploymentinurbanareasand32%oftotalemploymentinruralareas.Withinbothruralandurbanareas,industrieslikeagriculture,education,healthcare,

andhouseholdserviceshaveahighergenderratiothanthenationalaverage.

Lookingatwages,weseethatwomeninurbanareasmake,onaverage,2.15timesasmuchaswomenin

Figure9:GenderRatiobyIndustry,2021–2022)(%)

70

48

53

50

54

46

38

41

HouseholdServices

Healthcare

Education

Agriculture

21

36

24

30

BusinessandProfessionalServices

Industry

25

17

19

19

20

16

OtherServices

PublicAdministrationandDefense

HotelsandRestaurants

—14

14

14

4

10

5

7

8

Trade,Retail,andWholesaleServices

Media,Entertainment,andCulture

TelecomandBroadcasting

Construction

TransportServices12

01020304050607080

Shareoffemaleworkersamongtotalworkers

UrbanRural

Note:Indiaindicatestheaveragegenderratioacrossindustries.

Source:Authors’computationofthePLFSdata.

6Thegenderratiohereistheshareoffemaleworkersinaparticularsectorrelativetothetotalworkersinthatsector.

AStatisticalPortraitoftheIndianFemaleLaborForce7

Mining

Food,Beverage,and

Tobacco

Textiles,Leather,and

Apparel

Printing,Wood,andPaper

CokeandRened

Petroleum

Chemicalsand

Pharmaceuticals

Non-MetalandNon-Metal

Products

MetalandMetalProducts

Computer,Electronics,and

ElectricEquipment

Automobiles

Others

UtilityServices

1

–31

–11–15

–14

–26

–40

ADBInstitute

Figure10:MeanFemaleWageofWorkersRelativetoFemaleWorkersinIndia,2021–2022(%)

HouseholdServices

–58

–24

56

106

Healthcare

79

83

Education

–51

–9

102

Agriculture

BusinessandProfessional

58

–42

–15

–21

12

Services

Industry

OtherServices

114

101

PublicAdministrationandDefense

–22

26

–23

24

HotelsandRestaurants

Trade,Retail,andWholesale

Services

178

40

Media,Entertainment,

andCulture

83

–38

–8

36

TelecomandBroadcasting

Construction

50

97

TransportServices

–100–50050100150200

UrbanRural

Source:Authors’computationofthePLFSdata.

ruralareas.Thiswagedifferenceisprimarilydrivenbythesectorsinwhichwomenfindemploymentinboththeregions.Itisthereforeusefultocomparetherelativewagesoffemaleworkersinruralandurbanareasaccordingtotheirindustryofemployment.

Figure10showsthedifferentialbetweenthewageaccruedbywomenworkersineachindustryrelativetothemeanwageofwomenworkersinruralandurbanareas,respectively.Weobservethatwomenworkersinagricultureandhouseholdservicesreceive,onaverage,awagethatislowerthanthemeanwageofwomeninbothruralandurbanareas.Giventhatboththeseindustriescomprise77%and21%oftotalwomenemployedintheseregions,respectively,thereisanurgentneedtoshiftwomentohigher-payingindustries,particularlyinruralareas.Whilelookingatservices,industriessuchaseducation,healthcare,businessandprofessionalservices,andpublicadministrationprovidewomenwithafarbetterwagethantheaverageinbothruralandurbanareas.Withinmanufacturingandrelatedindustries,wefindthatwomenearnlessthantheaverageinbothruralandurbanareas.Thiscouldbeafunctionofthetypeofindustriesinmanufacturingwherewomenareemployed.AsFigure11illustrates,thenegativewagedifferentialofmanufacturingindustriesisprimarilydrivenbyfood,beverage,andtobacco;andtextiles,leather,andapparelindustries,wherethevastmajorityofwomenareemployedinbothruralandurbanareas.

Figure11:MeanFemaleWageofWorkersinManufacturingIndustriesRelativetoFemaleWorkersinIndia,2021–2022(%)

806040 20 0–20–40–60

–80

61

50

I

56

43

40

I

44

2331

27

32

I

17

8

11

2

–33

–56

–20

–54

Source:Authors’computationofthePLFSdata.

ADBIPolicyBriefNo.2023-17(December)

UrbanRural

8

ADBInstitute

2.3OccupationalIndicators

Welookatthedistributionoffemaleworkersacrossoccupationstogetsomeinsightsregardingtheprofessionswherewomenareemployed.WetaketheNationalOccupationClassificationof2015(NCO-2015)asourstandardclassificationforthisanalysis.Wepresentresultsatanaggregatedivisionlevel(one-digitlevel)forwomenworkersacrossruralandurbanareas(descriptionofsuchareavailableinAppendix1,TableA1.1).Amoredisaggregatedtrend(three-digitlevel)canbefoundinTableA2.3intheonlineAppendix2.

Accordingtoourresults,ahighproportionoffemalejobsinruralareasareinagricultureandrelatedoccupations(Figure12).Thisisfollowedbyelementaryoccupationsandcraftworkers.AsseeninTableA3,evenwithinelementaryoccupations,thelargestnumberofwomenareemployedasagriculturallaborers.Otheroccupationsthatemployalargeshareofwomeninruralareasincludeconstructionandmininglaborers,shopsalespersons,andgarmentworkers.

Withinurbanareas,thefemaleworkforceisemployedacrossamorediversesetofoccupations.Figure12showsthatalargenumberofwomenworkersinurbanareasareemployedinelementaryoccupation,serviceandsalesworkers,craft-relatedworkers,managers,and

professionals.Withineachoftheseoccupationaldivisions,thereareanumberofsubgroupswherewomenworkersareconcentrated.AsshowninTableA3,asubstantialnumberofwomeninelementaryoccupationsareengagedasdomestic,hotelandofficecleaners,andfactorylaborers.Intheserviceandsalesdivision,womenareinoccupationssuchasshopsalespersonsandcooks.Womenareengagedasgarmentandhandicraftworkersincraftandrelatedtradesdivision.Amongprofessionals,womenareconcentratedintheeducationindustryasprimaryandsecondaryschoolteachers.Remarkably,morethan1outof20femaleworkersinurbanareasareinatopmanagementoccupationsuchasdirectororchiefexecutiveofficerofacompany.

Lookingatthewagesaccruedbyfemaleworkersacrossoccupationaldivisions(Figure13),wefindthatmanagers,professionals,technicians,andclericalworkersaccrueahigherwagethanthemeanwageinbothruralandurbanareasinthecountry.Agricultureandcraftworkers,ontheotherhand,earnlessthanthenationalaverageinbothruralandurbanareas.Thepictureissplitforelementaryoccupations,wherewomenworkersreceivealower-than-averagewageinurbanareas,butanabove-averagewageinruralareas.ThiscouldbebecausethevastmajorityofjobsinruralIndiaareforagriculturalworkers,whichlowerstheaveragewage.

Figure12:FemaleEmploymentbyOccupation,2021–2022(%)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

8

22

57

14

17

26

18

10

5

4

5

5

Rural

Urban

PlantandMachineOperators,andAssemblersTechniciansandAssociateProfessionals

Professionals

CraftandRelatedTradesWorkers

SkilledAgricultural,Forestry,andFisheryWorkers

Clerks/ClericalSupportWorkers

Managers

ServiceandSalesWorkers

ElementaryOccupations

Source:Authors’computationofthePLFSdata.

9

AStatisticalPortraitoftheIndianFemaleLaborForce

ADBInstitute

Figure13:MeanFemaleWageofWorkersin

OccupationsRelativetoFemaleWorkersinIndia,2021–2022(%)

ElementaryOccupations

PlantandMachineOperators,andAssemblers

CraftandRelatedTradesWorkers

SkilledAgricultural,Forestry,andFisheryWorkers

ServiceandSalesWorkers

Clerks/ClericalSupportWorkersTechniciansandAssociateProfessionals

Professionals

Managers

6

10

53

12

–53–13

–28

63

22