情报和智商测试课件

IDEIA,SLD,RTI,andCognitiveAssessmentJackA.Naglieri,Ph.D.ProfessorofPsychologyCenterforCognitiveDevelopmentSchoolPsychologyProgramDirectorGeorgeMasonUniversityFairfax,VA22030://1IDEAReauthorizationTopicaloutlineIDEIAandforthcomingregulationsAlookattheLawResponsetointerventionLocalcomparisongroupsMeasurementofimprovementResearchandreviewsAcognitiveapproachtoassessmentConnectingLDdefinitionwithassessmentof“basicpsychologicalprocesses〞2IDEAReauthorizationTopicaloutlineIDEIAandforthcomingregulationsAlookattheLawResponsetointerventionLocalcomparisongroupsMeasurementofimprovementResearchandreviewsAcognitiveapproachtoassessmentConnectingLDdefinitionwithassessmentof“basicpsychologicalprocesses〞3IDEIA2004LawIndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationImprovementActof20044IDEAReauthorizationTheIDEIAandtheNoChildLeftBehindActhaveencouragedareexaminationofhowschoolpsychologistsfunctionTherehavebeenmanymeetingsofresearchers,practitioners,andprofessionalorganizationsandarticleswrittenwhichdiscusshowtoimprovethesystem,especiallyforLDdiagnosis5IDEAReauthorizationReexaminationoftheroleoftheschoolpsychologistsisgoodfortheevolutionofthefieldhowtoimprovediagnosisofSpecificLearningDisabilities(SLD)isparticularlyimportanthowtoreduceover-representationofminoritychildreninspecialeducationisalsoneeded6IDEIAWhataresomeofthedetailsofthenewLaw?7IDEIA2004LawRTImaybeusedASAPARToftheevaluation…butnotassolemethodIQachievementdiscrepancynolongerrequired8IDEIA2004Law“useavarietyofassessmenttools〞“notuseanysingleprocedure〞“assesscognitivefactors〞9IDEIA2004Lawnondiscriminatoryassessmentsvalidandreliableassessment10IDEIALawSummaryAbilityachievementdiscrepancyisnolongerrequired(notdisallowed)AvarietyofassessmenttoolsrequiredTheuseofanysinglemeasureorassessmentasthesolecriterionfordeterminingSLDisnotpermittedAssessmentsmustnotbediscriminatoryonracialorculturalbasisDefinitionofSLDremains11IDEIA2004LawDefinitionofSLDremainsthesame12SLDDefinitioninBothBillsThedefinitionofSLDhasnotchanged“Theterm‘specificlearningdisability’meansadisorderinoneormoreofthebasicpsychologicalprocessesinvolvedinunderstandingorinusinglanguage,spokenorwritten,whichdisordermaymanifestitselfintheimperfectabilitytolisten,think,speak,read,write,spell,ordomathematicalcalculations.〞13ReactionstoIDEIAAnticipationoftheRegulationsthatfollow…1415AlignthedefinitionofSLDwiththeclassificationcriteriaReplacediscrepancywithpatternofstrengthsandweaknessesandcognitiveabilitiesimpactingachievement161718SLD&CognitiveProcessingConnectingthedots19Hale,Naglieri,Kaufman,&Kavale(2004)20Hale,Naglieri,Kaufman,&Kavale(2004)ThedefinitionofSLDis“…adisorderin1ormoreofthebasicpsychologicalprocessesinvolvedinunderstandingorinusinglanguage,spokenorwritten,whichdisordermaymanifestitselfintheimperfectabilitytolisten,think,speak,read,write,spell,ordomathematicalcalculations.〞NeitherthediscrepancymodelorRTIevaluatesbasicpsychologyprocesses21Hale,Naglieri,Kaufman,&Kavale(2004)ThemethodofRTIisdisconnectedfromthedefinitionofSLD“EstablishingadisorderinthebasicpsychologyprocessesisessentialfordeterminingSLD〞PractitionershaveignoredthisapproachbecauseoflimitedavailabilityofgoodmeasuresofprocessingTimeshavechanged22Hale,Naglieri,Kaufman,&Kavale(2004)Processingmeasuresoftodayareverydifferentthanthoseofthe1970sTeststhatwespecificallydevelopedtomeasurebasicpsychologicalprocessesshouldbeusedKaufmanAssessmentBatteryforChildren2ndEditionCognitiveAssessmentSystem23Hale,Naglieri,Kaufman,&Kavale(2004)DefiningintelligenceasprocessingleadstosmallerraceandethnicdifferencesthantraditionalIQtestsYieldsexcellentpredictiontoachievementProvidessensitivitytothecognitivedisordersseeninmanyexceptionalchildrenHasdemonstratedrelationshipstointerventionNaglieri,J.A.(2003).Currentadvancesinassessmentandinterventionforchildrenwithlearningdisabilities.InT.E.ScruggsandM.A.Mastropieri(Eds.)AdvancesinlearningandbehavioraldisabilitiesVolume16:Identificationandassessment(pp.163-190).NewYork:JAI.

24WhatisNext?CurrentstatusasofMarch2005RegulationswhichareinterpretationsofthelawarebeingwrittenInputontheregulationswasduebyFeb28,2005WeneedtolearnaboutthestrengthsandweaknessoftheoptionsRTI–whichmaybeincludedAssessmentofbasicpsychologicalprocesses–whichneedstobeassessed25IDEAReauthorizationTopicaloutlineIDEIAandforthcomingregulationsAlookattheLawResponsetointerventionLocalcomparisongroupsMeasurementofimprovementResearchandreviewsAcognitiveapproachtoassessmentConnectingLDdefinitionwithassessmentof“basicpsychologicalprocesses〞26AlternativestoabilityachievementdiscrepancyResponsetoIntervention27IDEAReauthorizationTopicaloutlineIDEAreauthorizationTheproblemofLDidentificationResponsetointerventionLocalcomparisongroupsMeasurementofimprovementAcognitiveapproachtoassessment28RTIAdvocatesArgueThecurrentsystemisfocusedoneligibilitynotinstructionManyLDstudentshadbadinstructionnotavalidwaytoidentifyLDa“wait-to-fail〞modelFocusedontheATIconceptAssessmentofprocessingispsychometricallysuspectandlargelyirrelevanttotheidentificationofLDEligibilityprocessisexpensiveNotworkingbecauseteamsignoreestablishedclassificationcriteriaGresham,F.M.(2001).Responsetointervention:Analternativeapproachtotheidentificationoflearningdisabilities,WhitepaperpresentedfortheLearningDisabilitiesSummit,OfficeofSpecialEducationPrograms,U.S.DepartmentofEducation,August,2001.29ResponsetoIntervention

andSLDAsummaryofthemethodandresearchers’responsetoRTI30Kovaleski&Prasse(2004)ThedualdiscrepancyformatforSLDidentificationPart1:LowacademicperformancePart2:Poorresponsetoappropriateinstruction31Kovaleski&Prasse(2004)Part1LowacademicperformanceThestudentmustbesignificantlybelowsame-gradepeersShinn(2002)notesthata2.0gradeleveldiscrepancyisatypicalindexthatidentifiesasignificantacademicdeficiencyThisisbasedonadiscrepancyfromgrade-levelperformancewithoutreferencetoanassessmentofthestudent’sabilitylevel(i.e.,IQ)32AssessingAcademicPerformanceLowacademicperformance(continued)BUT…Shinn’s2.0gradeleveldiscrepancyisalsoa“waittofail〞modelbecauseyoucan’tbebehindbytwoyearsuntilyouareinatleastsecondgradeBUT…ThegradeequivalentmethodhasmanywellknownpsychometricproblemsAND…differencesincurriculumcaninfluencewhoisbehind33Kovaleski&Prasse(2004)Part1Lowacademicperformance(continued)AdvocatesargueforRTIasacurriculum-basedmeasurement(CBM)approachReadingfluencyisoveremphasizedThestudent’sdiscrepancyisdeterminedinrelationtoclassmatesbycomparingtheperformanceonCBMmeasureswithnormsfromthestudent’sschoolorschooldistrict

34AssessingAcademicPerformanceLocalNormsAdvantageLocalnormsaregoodattellingwherethechildisinrelationtothesmallestcomparisongroup–thechild’sclassroomDisadvantageLocalnormsonlytellwherethechildisinrelationtothesmallestcomparisongroup–thechild’sclassroomChangetheclassroomandthescorechangesChangetheschoolandthescorechanges35TheProblemwithLocalNormsFairfaxCountySchools36FairfaxCountyElementaryReadingscoreswereobtainedforall69elementaryschoolsinFairfaxCountyPublicSchoolsTheschoolswererankedonreadingscoresThe10th,35th,and59thrankedschoolswereselectedSchoolbasedstandardscoreswerecomputedReadingscore–standardscore(mean100,SDof15)werecomputedandcomparedacrossschools37ThesameReadingscoreof55yieldsastandardscoreof112(aboveaverage)forachildinHerndonElementarySchoolbutascoreof92(average)inColumbiaElementarySchoolandascoreof84(wellbelowaverage)inFlintHillElementarySchool.38LocalNormsforInnerCitySchoolsScoresbasedonanationalnormgroupindicatethesechildrenarelow39LocalNormsforInnerCitySchoolsStandardscoresbasedonanationalnormgroupindicatethesechildrenarelowStandardscoresbasedonlocalmeanfalselydescribehalfthechildrenwithnationalscoresbelow85asOK40LocalNormsHoweffectiveisalocalnorm?Itcalibratesachildbasedonacomparisontotheclassroom,school,orschooldistrictIsitconsistentacrossclassrooms?Bydefinition–NOIsitconsistentacrossschools?Bydefinition–NOIsitconsistentacrossdistricts?Bydefinition–NOLocalnormsprovideaninconsistentunitofmeasurement41FairfaxCountyElementaryConclusionsonLocalNormsLocalnormsareusefultodeterminehowthechildcomparestotherestoftheclassandforinstructionalplanningAwidevarietycanexistbetweenschoolsinthesameschooldistrictAchildmaybe“failing〞inoneclassbutdoing“well〞inanotherDeterminingSLDonlocalnormswillyieldconsiderableinequitiesespeciallyforminoritygroups42Kovaleski&Prasse(2004)Part2PoorresponsetoappropriateinstructionThestudentperformspoorlytocarefullyplannedandpreciselydeliveredinstructionThedataaredevelopedthroughongoingprogressmonitoringonacriticalacademicmeasureduringthecourseofanindividuallydesignedinterventionTheuseofCBMasanongoingperformancemeasure(usuallythroughdatacollectedtwiceperweek)isrecommended43Doesanincreaseincountsmeanimprovementisreal?Goodnewscanberelative44RatesofImprovementAnAchievementExample45RatesofImprovementVocabularyGrowthMeaningvocabularygrowthaverageincreaseis2,500wordsperyear(McCormick,1998)Achildneedstolearnabout2,500wordsperyeartokeepupwithpeersButachildcanlearnmorewordseveryyearandstillfallbehind46RatesofImprovement-Vocabulary47ImprovementorDeterioration?50%increaseinnumberofwordsperyearexpressedasstandardscoresinrelationtonormalgrowthrate50%increaseinnumberofwordslearnedperyear48RatesofImprovementVisualexaminationofchangesinrateareonlysufficienttodemonstratechangefrombaselineChangesovertimearehelpfulforinstructionaldecisionsAimlinesbasedonlocalnormsaremisleading49ConclusionsRegardingKovaleski&Prasse(2004)Thedualdiscrepancyformat:LowacademicperformanceandPoorresponsetoinstruction50ConclusionsonDualDiscrepancyChangesovertimedonotnecessarilymeanthechildhasreachedalevelthatisconsistentwithnormativeexpectationsCompetencylevelscanbesetsolow,and“improvement〞definedbysuchsmallsteps,thatapparentimprovementmaybebetterdescribedasshowingIllusoryValidity51ConclusionsonDualDiscrepancyRTImaybeareasonablewaytofindchildrenwhoaredoingpoorlyinclassRTIproblemsLocalnormsdonotprovideconsistencyIncreasesinperformancecanbemisleading52WhatdoResearcherssayaboutRTI?Advantages,disadvantages,claims,andinconsistencies53NRCLDConferenceonRTI(Dec‘03)54RTIConferenceVellutino(2003)RTIAdvocateshavearguedthatIQscoresareunrelatedtochildren’sresponsetointerventionThereforeIQtestsareirrelevantVellutinoespeciallyhasmadethisclaimandprovidedareportofhisresearch55FullScaleIQscores(Vellutino)EffectSize=.6FSIQ56FullScaleIQscoresWechslerFSIQFrom:Case,Speece,&Molly(2004).ValidityofResponsetoIntervention….SchoolPsychologyReview,32,557-582.

Effectsize=1.057RTIConference-VaughnSharonVaughndescribedastudyofthe3TiermodelReadingfluencywasmeasuredFromKto3rdgrade,20%ofthechildrendidnotbenefitfromintervention–theyareconsideredSLDSchoolpsychologistwerenotincludedatanylevelIttookTHREEYEARStoidentifythesechildrenWaittofail!Thestudyidentified20%ofthesampleThatisalargepercentageofthesampleConclusion:thehopethatRTIoffersfasteridentificationofLDandreducesthenumbersofchildrenfoundwasnotachieved58RTIConference-GerberMichaelGerber-ThecostsofRTIHeestimatedthatthecostforTRIforgradesK-3forthefirstyearofanationalscaleimplementationwas$2,033,228,291The2003FederalAppropriationsforNCLB(TitleII,PartA)is$1,780,825,000Thecostis$252,403,291morethantheallocation!59RTIConference-KavaleSuccessisnotwelldefinedintheRTImodelIncreasesinrateoflearningalonearenotsufficientTherearenotcleardefinitionsorcutscorestoindicatefailuretorespondtointerventionRTIisagoodfirststepSLDismorethanjustreadingfailurebutRTIhasbeenlimitedtoreadingfluency60RTIConference-KavaleThedefinitionofLDhasbeenignoredThereisnoconnectionbetweenthedefinitionofSLDandthemethodofRTIRTIisnotsufficientforidentificationofLD“aformalevaluationisabsolutelynecessary〞orinappropriateconclusionsmaybereachedbecausereadingfailurecanbecausedbydepression,emotional/behavioraldisorders,anxietydisorders,ADHD,etc.61RTIConference-Scruggs(2003)RTIreadinginterventionsshouldbeusedingeneraleducationtoassurehigh-qualityinstructionandprovidealternativestospecialeducationplacementLDidentificationshouldbeaccomplishedonthebasisofstrictadherencetocriteriaforidentificationwhichascommonlyknown,hasnotbeenfollowedinmanypartsofthecountry62RTIConference-MastropieriTheRTImodelistoofocusedonreadingdecodingandignoresotherareassuchasreadingcomprehension,math,science,etc.ImplementationofRTIatmiddleandhighschoollevelsseemsunlikelyThisisparticularlyimportantgiventhenumberofstudentswhoarecurrentlyidentifiedatthemiddleandearlyhighschoollevel63RTIConference-MastropieriTheRTImovementisanattempttochangeregulareducationEarlierattemptstochangeregulareducationemanatingfromspecialeducationhavefailedRTIistoolimitedtomeetthediverseneedsofSLDchildrenSLDismorethanreadingdecodingorreadingfluencyToomuchemphasisonphonics64RTIConference-MastropieriSheasked“Whereisthesolidresearchbaseprovidingscientificevidenceforoptimalinstructionalmethodsandmaterialsacrossallgradelevelsandallcurriculumlevels?Thereadingmethodsaredescribedas“scientificallybased〞butwhereisthescience?65ResearchonRTIFuchs,D.,Mock,D.,Morgan,P,&Young,C.(2003).Responsiveness-to-intervention:Definitions,evidence,andimplicationsfrothelearningDisabilitiesConstruct.LearningDisabilitiesResearch&Practice,18,157-171.66Fuchs,etal.,(2003)Ohio’sInterventionBasedAssessmentIBAcombinesabehavioralproblem-solvingapproachwithcollaborativeconsultationBehavioraldefinitionoftheproblemBaselinedataarecollectedBehavioraldefinitionoftheproblemGoalsaresetInterventionplanimplementedComparestudenttobaseline67Fuchs,etal.,(2003)Telzrow,etal.,2000evaluatedtheIBAprogram329schoolswereinvolved“Thepresentstudysuggeststhatreliableimplementationofproblemsolvingapproachesinschoolsremainselusive〞Theydidnotfindevidenceofreliableandconsistentimplementation68Fuchs,etal.,(2003)Pennsylvania’sInstructionalSupportTeams(IST)CollaborativeproblemsolvingthatprovidesprereferralinterventionlikeOhioCompositionofteamisalittledifferentISTusescurriculum-basedassessmentBaseline,agoalisset,interventionplanned50daylimitIfnosuccess,multidisciplinaryevaluationpossible69Fuchs,etal.,(2003)Pennsylvania’sInstructionalSupportTeams(IST)Kovaleskietal.,(1999)studiedtheimpactofISTandfoundthestudentsshowedbetterprogressthanstudentsinnon-ISTschoolsBut,accordingtoFuchs“timeontaskandtaskcompletionandcomprehensionareonlyindirectacademicmeasures〞(p.162)70Fuchs,etal.,(2003)Heartland(Iowa)andMinneapolisfourlevelmodelTeacherandparentstrytofixproblemTeacherandBuildingAssistanceTeamselect,implement,&monitorinterventionBehavioralproblemsolvingusedtorefineorredesigntheinterventionSpecialeducationalassistanceisconsidered71Fuchs,etal.,(2003)“AlthoughtheMinneapolisPublicSchools(2001)reportthat,“Theproblem-solvingmodelhasundergoneconsiderableevaluation〞wefoundfewpublishedorunpublishedevaluations;noneinpeer-reviewedjournals.Thereportdescribedschoolwidereadinggains…butnodatawerepresented72Fuchs,etal.,(2003)CONCLUSION#1Evaluationsofcollaborativeproblemsolving“havegenerallyfailedtoproducepersuasiveevidencethatclassroom-basedinterventions(1)areimplementedwithfidelityand(2)strengthenstudent’sacademicachievementorimproveclassroombehavior〞(p.163)73Fuchs,etal.,(2003)CONCLUSIONS#2&3ThereisinsufficientevidenceoftheeffectivenessofRTIapproachesinOhioandPennsylvania…andespeciallyinversionsusedinHeartlandandMinneapolis(p.166)“Moretroubling…isthattheselargelyuntestedproceduresarethebasisof…RTI…whichisbeingconsideredasareplacementforIQ-achievementdiscrepancy〞74Fuchs,etal.,(2003)CONCLUSION#4TheabsenceofevidenceweakenstheassumptionthatRTIprovidesfeasible,timely,andeffectiveinterventions(p.166).ProponentsofRTIasanalternativemeansofLDidentificationmustsillprovethattheirproblem-solvingapproachisworthyofthedescriptor“scientificallybased〞(p.167)75RTI–ProsandConsRTImaybeareasonablewaytofindchildrenwhoaredoingpoorlyinclassRTIproblemsLocalnormsdonotprovideconsistencyIncreasesinperformancecanbemisleadingThereisnoevidencethatRTIiseffectiveforSLDidentificationRTIisinconsistentwiththedefinitionofSLDRTIisnotwellsupportedbyresearch76InformationfromNASP77IDEAReauthorization&RTIOtherissues…78IDEAReauthorization&LDAssessmentisdefinedasaprocessofgatheringinformationfromavarietyofsources,usingavarietyofmethodsthatbestaddressthereasonforevaluation.79IDEAReauthorization&LDSelectassessmentmethodsthatincludemultiplesourcesofinformation…procedures…andsettings80IDEAReauthorization&LDNotlimitedtoanysinglemethodologyortheoreticalframeworkComprehensiveandaddresseducational,cognitive,andmentalhealthneedsMultidimensionalNASPendorsesassessmentpracticesthatare:81IDEAReauthorization&LDAllapproachestoassessmentareusedinwaysconsistentwiththeirscientificbase…Thisincludesnormandperformancebased,standardizedandfunctionalassessments;intelligence,cognitiveprocessing,social-emotional,academicskills,etc82IDEAandCognitiveAssessmentTopicaloutlineIDEAreauthorizationTheproblemofLDidentificationResponsetointerventionLocalcomparisongroupsMeasurementofimprovementAcognitiveapproachtoassessmentConnectingLDdefinitionwithassessmentof“basicpsychologicalprocesses〞83IDEAandCognitiveAssessmentHowdoweconnectthedefinitionofLDwithmethodstoassessit?Measure“basicpsychologicalprocesses〞usingwellvalidatedstandardizedtestsbuiltoncurrentviewsofprocessingTwooptionstomeasureprocessingPlanning,Attention,Simultaneous,Successive(PASS)theoryandCAS(Naglieri&Das,1997)TheK-ABCII(Kaufman&Kaufman,2004)84Hale,Naglieri,Kaufman,&Kavale(2004)Measuringprocessinghasadvantages:smallerraceandethnicdifferencesthantraditionalIQtestsexcellentpredictiontoachievementsensitivitytothecognitivedisordersseeninmanyexceptionalchildrenConnectiontointerventionNaglieri,J.A.(2003).Currentadvancesinassessmentandinterventionforchildrenwithlearningdisabilities.InT.E.ScruggsandM.A.Mastropieri(Eds.)AdvancesinlearningandbehavioraldisabilitiesVolume16:Identificationandassessment(pp.163-190).NewYork:JAI.

85Naglieri,Kaufman,Kavale,Hale86Naglieri,Kaufman,Kavale,Halespecificlearningdisability“meansadisorderinoneormoreofthebasicpsychologicalprocesses...〞(§602(30)(A))Thelawprovidesthat,aspartoftheevaluationproceduresinSec.614ofIDEIA,thelocaleducationagencyshallusetechnicallysoundinstrumentsthatmayassesstherelativecontributionofcognitiveandbehavioralfactors…(§614(b)(2)(C)).87Naglieri,Kaufman,Kavale,HaleTheregulationsshouldprovidethatacomprehensiveevaluationofthese“basicpsychologyprocesses〞mustbepartofthemethodsusedtodeterminewhetherthechildislearningdisabled.Insodoing,thedefinitionofSLDandtheproceduresusedtodetermineeligibilitywouldbeunited.88Naglieri,Kaufman,Kavale,HaleWealsostronglysupportsection§614(b)(3)(A)(iii)ofthelawwhichstatesthatassessmentofthesebasicpsychologicalprocessesmustbeconductedusingwellvalidated,reliable,norm-referencedcognitivemeasuresthatarenotdiscriminatoryonracialorculturalbasis.89Naglieri,Kaufman,Kavale,Halewesupporttheuseofaresponsetointerventionmethodatthepre-referralstage.WefurthersupportthefactthatCongresshasrecognized(Sec.614(