华东政法大学考博英语2014年真题

华东政法大学2014年博士研究生入学考试英语试卷第一部分基础英语试题PartI:Grammar&Vocabulary(15%)Directions:ChoosethewordorphrasethatbestcompleteseachsentenceandthenmarkyouranswersonyourANSWERSHEET1.1.Thegovernorwas___bythepublicformisusinghispowerforpersonalinterests. [A]sneaked [B]praised [C]flailed [D]rebuked 2.He___athiswatchbeforehelefttheoffice. [A]glanced [B]glimpsed [C]glared [D]scribbled3.Arecentpollshowsthat,while81percentofcollegestudentsareeligibleforsomeformoffinancialaid,only63percentofthesestudentsare__________suchaid.[A]complainingabout [B]recipientsof[C]dissatisfiedwith [D]turneddownfor4.The____landlordrefusedtoreturnthesecuritydeposit,claimingfalselythatthetenanthaddamagedtheapartment.[A]unscrupulous [B]resplendent [C]divine [D]deceased5.MobyDick,nowregardedasagreatworkofAmericanliterature,wasvirtually____whenitwasfirstpublished,anditwasnotuntilmanyyearslaterthatMelville’sachievementswere____.[A]renowned...relegated [B]notorious ...justified[C]hailed...understood [D]ignored...recognized6.Herefusedto_____thathewasdefeated.[A]burlesque [B]conceive [C]acknowledge [D]probe7.Thepeoplestood______atthebeautifulpicture.[A]glaring [B]gazing [C]peeping [D]gasping8.Thejudgeiscommittedtomaintaininga_____ofimpartiality.[A]stance [B]motto [C]pretense [D]commotion9.Dellquitdealinginsouped-upversionsofothercompanies’products,andstarteddesigning,_______andmarketinghisown.[A]fashioning [B]assembling [C]pruning [D]slashing10.Thislaw______thenumberofaccidentscausedbychildrenrunningacrosstheroadwhentheygetoffthebus.[A]intendsreducing [B]intendstobereduced[C]isintendedtoreduce [D]isintendedreducing11.BythetimeyouarriveinLondon,we_____inEuropefortwoweeks.[A]shallstay [B]havestayed [C]willhavestayed [D]havebeenstaying12.Withoutfacts,wecannotformaworthwhileopinionforweneedtohavefactualknowledge_____ourthinking.[A]whichtobebasedon [B]whichtobaseupon[C]uponwhichtobase [D]towhichtobebased13.Thelittlemanwas_____onemeterfiftyhigh.[A]almostmorethan [B]hardlymorethan [C]nearlymorethan [D]asmuchas14.Theyoungapplicantisundergreat___atthethoughtofup-comingjobinterview. [A]comprehension [B]apprehension [C]miscomprehension [D]concern15.ThesuccessfullaunchoftheSpecialOlympicGameshasdemonstratedthat___Shanghaiiswellonitswaytobecomeoneofthemostinternalizedmetropolisesworldwide. [A]imperceptibly [B]conceivably [C]deceivably [D]imaginatively16.Iwouldrather______troubleandhardshiplikethatthan____byothers.[A]had….takecareof [B]have…takencareof[C]had…takencareof [D]have…betakencareof17.Onedifficulty_______thecomponentsofeconomicmovementsliesinthefactthatthosecomponentsarenotcompletelyindependentofoneanother. [A]ofisolation [B]inisolating [C]willisolate [D]toisolate18.Interestonshort-termgovernmentdebtsoaredtoanalmostunimaginable210%,which_____atotalcollapseofinvestorconfidence. [A]amountsto [B]equalsto [C]isaddedupto [D]reachesto19.It’sageneralpracticeforsmallfactoriesto_____moreworkersduringtimesofprosperity,andlayoffsomewhenrecessionhits. [A]takein [B]takeover [C]takeon [D]takeupbyaverylargefactor.”ButheexpresseddoubtthatAmericanswerewillingtogiveupmovingaboutthecountrysideat90milesanhourinalargevehicle.“Americaseemsweddedtothemotorcar-everyfamilyhastohaveatleasttwo,andonehastobeaconvertiblewith300horsepower,”ProfessorGalstoncontinued.“Isthisthewayoflifethatwechoosebecausewecherishthesevalues?”ForPaulB.Sears,professorofconservation,partoftheblamelieswith“asocietythatregardsprofitasasupremevalue,underthefalseideathatanythingthat’stechnicallypossibleis,therefore,ethicallyjustified.”ProfessorSearsalsocalledthecountry’sdependenceonitsmodernautomobile“lousyeconomics”becauseofthelargehorsepowerusedsimply“movingonepersontowork.”ButheagreedthatAmericanshavepaintedthemselvesintoacornerbyallowingthenationaleconomytobecomesoreliantontheautomobileindustry.AccordingtoDr.Weinerman,automobiles,notthefactories,areresponsiblefortwo-thirdsofthesmoginAmericancities,andthesmogpresentsthepossibilityofawholenewkindofepidemic,notduetoonegerm,butduetopollutedenvironment.“Withinanotherfivetotenyears,it’spossibletohaveanepidemicoflungcancerinacitylikeLosAngeles.Thisisanewphenomenoninhealthconcern,”hesaid.Thesolution,hecontinued,is“nottofindalessdangerousfuel,butadifferentsystemofinner-citytransportation.Becauseoftheincreasinguseofcars,publictransportationhasbeenallowedtowitheranddegenerate,sothatifyoucan’twalktowhereyouwanttogo,youhavetohaveacarinmostcities,”heasserted.This,inturn,Dr.Weinermancontended,isresponsibleforthe“arteriosclerosis”ofpublicroads,fortheblightoftheinnercityandforthemiddle-classmovementtothesuburbs.36.Themainideaofthisarticleisthat_______.[A]Americansaretooattachedtotheircars.[B]Americancarsruntoofastandconsumetoomuchfuel.[C]theautomobileindustryhascausedallthistohappen.[D]automobilesendangerboththeenvironmentandpeople.37.Inparagraph2,ProfessorGalstonimpliesthat_______.[A]peoplearemoreinterestedinfastautomobilesthanintheirhealth.[B]kerosene-burningcarswouldpollutetheenvironmentmoreseriouslythangasoline-burningenginesdo.[C]Americansfeelmorecloselyconnectedtotheircarsthantotheenvironment.[D]itisnotrightforeveryfamilytohaveatleasttwocars.38.Inparagraph3,ProfessorSearsimpliesthat_______.[A]technologyisalwaysgoodforpeople.[B]technologyisnotalwaysgoodforpeople.[C]financialprofitismoreimportantthantechnologicaladvancement.[D]technologicaladvancementwillimprovefinancialprofit.39.ItcanbeinferredfromParagraph5that_______.[A]afuellessdangerousthangasolinemustbefound.[B]peopleshouldgetridoftheircarsandtakethebustowork.[C]publictransportationshouldbeimprovedsothatpeoplecanbecomelessdependentupontheircarsforinner-citytransportation.[D]theonlysolutiontothisproblemistobuildmorehighwaysandmoresubways.40.Dr.Weinermanwouldprobablyagreethat_______,ifpublictransportationwereimproved.[A]theinnercitymightimprove[B]themiddleclasswouldmovetothesuburbs[C]publicroadswouldgetworse[D]therewouldstillbeanurgentneedtobuildmorehighwaysPartIII:EnglishWriting(15%)DIRECTIONS:Forthispart,youaregoingtowriteashortessayonthetitle.Youshouldwriteabout250wordsandwriteyouressayontheANSWERSHEET2.Title:Howtohandlepsychologicalpressureintoday’scompetitivelifeNOTES:Markswillbeawardedforcontent,organization,grammarandappropriateness.Failuretofollowtheinstructionmayresultinalossofmarks.第二部分专业英语试题PartI.ReadingcomprehensionTherearealtogether12sections.Pleasechoosefromtheitemsgivenundereachquestionthebestoneasyouranswer.2marksforeachquestionwithatotalof40marks.Note：Youshouldanswerquestionsto5sectionsonly，oneofwhichshouldbethesectioncorrespondingtothemajoryouareapplyingforandtheother4sectionscanbeselectedatyourwill.每名考生最多回答5节下的选择题，其中必须有一节与考生所报专业对应，其余4节考生可以任选。JurisprudenceItispracticallyimpossibletoimagineconstitutionallawwithoutdissent.TheveryfirstopinionintheCharterera—thePatriationReference—wasmarkedbyit.Dissentispowerfulandevocative,evenmythic;itsuggestsroadsnottakenandparalleluniverses.Itevokesafundamentaland,sometimes,unsettlingcontingencyaboutlaw.Itcanbeproblematic,disruptingeasyunderstandingsofhowtoacourt“getsitright”and,thus,damagingtoacourt’slegitimacy.Yet,dissenthaspositiveaspects,too.Itcan:betterarticulatenormsandunderstandingsunderlyingkeydecision-rules;provideacounternarrativetoprevailingorthodoxy;laythefoundationforfuturedevelopmentoflaw;provideanecessaryoutletfordisagreementthatotherwisemightconstrainandfrustratejudicialactors;andevensecurebroaderacceptanceofamajoritydecisionbyshowingthatitisaproductofdeliberation.Inthispaper,Ipresentanotherpossible“upside”todissentthatfocusesontheissueinQuebec(AttorneyGeneral)v.A:equality.First,IcanvasstwowaysthatdissentmanifestsinCharterjurisprudence:one(functional)relatingtothejudiciary’sappropriateroleinconstitutionaldisputes;andtheother(principled)relatingtotheidentification,scopeorapplicationofrulesandnorms.Thetwomodelsarerichlyrepresentedinequalityjurisprudence.IntheSupremeCourt’sfirstSection15case,Andrewsv.LawSocietyofBritishColumbia,theCourtdividedoverthefunctionalquestionofhowcloselytheCourtshouldscrutinizelegislateddifference.Insubsequentcases,theCourthasstruggledtoreachconsensusonthemeaningofequalityitself—anissueofprinciple.Thefactthatequalityjurisprudencehasbeencharacterizedbychronicdisagreementmightappearunfortunate.Butmyreviewofsection15caselawsuggeststhat,byprovidingthespacetofullyfleshoutpointsofdisagreement,dissenthascontributedtoricheraccountsofequality.BorrowingthelanguageofCassSunstein,Isuggestthatadividedequalitydecisionthatistheresultoffailuretoreachagreementon“deep”issuesispreferabletoonethat,asthepriceofunanimity,remains“shallow”.IconcludethatthedecisioninQuebec(AttorneyGeneral)v.Aisdeepratherthanshallowandso,despiteitsfrustratingdivisions,itisonthewholebetterthanmanyoftheunanimousequalitydecisionsthatprecededit.41.TheauthorlistedthefollowingpositiveaspectsofdissentBUT()(a)Itprovidesacounternarrativetoprevailingorthodoxy.(b)Itcanlaythefoundationforfuturedevelopmentoflaw.(c)Itcanprovideanecessaryoutletfordisagreement.(d)Itcanbedamagingtoacourt’slegitimacy.42.Fromthethirdparagraph,onecanknowthefollowingBUT()(a)Theauthordiscussesthecasesinwhichthefunctionofdissentsisobviousintwoways.(b)Thesubsequentcasesweredecidedbyconsensus.(c)Andrewsv.LawSocietyofBritishColumbiaisaconstitutionalcaserelatingtoSection15.(d)Andrewsv.LawSocietyofBritishColumbiawasnotdecidedunanimously.43.Theauthorthinksthatadividedequalitydecisionispreferablebecause()(a)itcontributestoricheraccountsofequality.(b)itisdeep.(c)itisonthewholebetter.(d)isfrustratinglydivided.44.Whatisthemostsuitabletopicfortheseparagraphs?()(a)TheDissentinEqualityJurisprudence(b)TheUpsideofDissent(c)TheUpsideofDissentinEqualityJurisprudence(d)TheEqualityJurisprudenceLegalHistoryThereisalargelyforgottenstorytobetoldofU.S.legalimperialisminChina,despiteChina’slocationfaroutsideofAmerica’sterritorialborders.Thestory’sprotagonistisaratherarcanesoundinglegaldoctrine,extraterritorialjurisdiction.Exclusiveterritorialjurisdictionisoneofthedefiningfeaturesofthesovereigntyofthemodernnation-state.Withlimitedexceptions,itiswhereapersonisthatdetermineswhatlawappliestohimorher.However,whenastateassertsextraterritorialjurisdiction,itclaimstherighttoapplyitslawsbeyondthebordersofitsterritory.Toanticipatethestory,theextraordinarytreatythatlaidthefoundationforAmericanextraterritorialitywasnegotiatedbyCalebCushing,thefirstAmericanministertoChinaaswellasaMassachusettscongressman,alawyer,andafutureattorneygeneraloftheUnitedStates.CushingwaschargedbyPresidentJohnTylerwiththepre-textualmissionofgoingtoPekingtoinquireaftertheemperor’shealthandtocarryoutthepresident’swishesforhislongevity.BackedbyhisownlittlearmadaaswellasthepresenceoftheU.S.navalforcesinthePacific,CushingpersuadedtheQingEmpiretoenterintoaTreatyofPeace,Amity,andCommercewiththeUnitedStates.ThetreatywassignedonJuly3,1844,inthevillageofWanghiainMacao.Underitsterms,ChinawasobligatedtoallowAmericanstotradefreelyinCantonaswellasinfourotherpreviouslyclosedports.Moreover,AmericansobtainedtherightofextraterritorialjurisdictioninChina.From1844until1943,U.S.citizensinChinawereformallysubjectonlytothelawsoftheUnitedStates.Stateddifferently,whenAmericansenteredChina,Americanlawtraveledwiththem,effectivelyattachingtotheirverybodies.Howdidtherelativelyrecentlyemancipatedworld’sleadinganti-colonialpowerreconcileitsextraterritorialjurisdictioninChinawithChiefJusticeMarshall’sringingstatementin1812,“Thejurisdictionofanationwithinitsterritoryisnecessarilyexclusiveandabsolute...beingaliketheattributeofeverysovereignandincapableofconferringextraterritorialpower”?ItturnsoutthattheforgottencenturyofAmericanextraterritorialjurisdictioninChinaisastorynotonlyaboutChinaandtheUnitedStatesbutalsoofinternationallaw.Thisessayisthusalsoastoryaboutlaw’soperationtransnationally,andacasestudyofhowlawdynamicallybothconstitutesanddeconstitutessovereignsatbothnationalandinternationallevels.45.Whichoneofthefollowingisextraterritorialjurisdictionaccordingtotheauthor?()(a)CountryAimposesfinetoitsowncitizenwhoviolatestrafficrulesinCountryA.(b)CountryAimposesfinetoacitizenofCountryBwhoviolatestrafficrulesinCountryA.(c)CountryAchargescrimeresponsibilitytoacitizenofCountryAwhocommitsacrimeinCountryB.(d)CountryBchargescrimeresponsibilitytoacitizenofCountryAwhocommitsacrimeinCountryB.46.WhichdescriptionaboutCalebCushingisNOTtrueaccordingtothesecondparagraph?()(a)HewasaMassachusettscongressman.(b)HewasthefirstAmericanenvoytoChina.(c)Hewasalawyer.(d)HewastheattorneygeneraloftheUnitedStatesbeforevisitedChina.47.WhatisNOTincludedinthe1844Sino-Americabilateraltreaty?()(a)WhenAmericansenteredChina,theyallcarriedUSlaws.(b)AmericanswereallowedtotradefreelyinCanton.(c)Americanswereallowedtotradefreelyinfourotherpreviouslyclosedports.(d)UScitizensinChinawerenotsubjecttoChineselaws.48.ThecontradictionbetweentheAmericanextraterritorialityandJusticeMarshall’sstatementin1812canbereconciledwhen()(a)thecenturyofAmericanextraterritorialjurisdictionisforgotten.(b)onelooksattheissuefrominternationallevel.(c)everysovereignisincapableofconferringextraterritorialpower.(d)lawdynamicallyconstitutesanddeconstitutessovereigns.ConstitutionalandAdministrativeLawRobertPostnotesthatthreeinterestshavetraditionallybeenadvancedtojustifycampaignfinancereform:equality,antidistortion,andtheeliminationofcorruption.Eachofthesethreeinterestsisfundamentalwithinasystemofrepresentativegovernment.Eachconstituentisentitledtoequalinfluenceintheselectionofherrepresentative;electionresultsshouldtransparentlyrepresent,withoutdistortion,theviewsofthepeople;andelectedrepresentativesshouldperformtheirappropriateroles,withoutcorruption.Noneofthesethreeinterests,however,makessensewithinthediscursivedemocracyestablishedandprotectedbyFirstAmendmentrights.Indiscursivedemocracy,asdistinctfromdirectdemocracy,publicopinionisalwaysevolving;itdoesnotmakedecisionswithrespecttowhichcitizenscanexerciseanequalinfluence.Indiscursivedemocracy,publicopinionisneverrepresented,sothatthereisnobaselinefromwhichdistortionscanbemeasured.Andthestate’sinterestinpreservingtherolemoralityofrepresentativesfromcorruptioncanatmostcountasaconstitutionalinteresttobeweighedagainstFirstAmendmentinterestsinpreservingtheintegrityofself-governmentthroughdiscursivedemocracy.ItisnowonderthattheconstitutionaljurisprudenceofcampaignfinancereformhasbeenamuddlesincethedaysofBuckleyv.Valeo.CitizensUnitedconcludesthatneitherequality,nordistortion,noreliminatingcorruption,cancountasconstitutionallycompellinginterestscapableofjustifyinglegislationprohibitingcorporationsfrommakingindependentcampaignexpendituresdirectlyfromtheircorporatetreasuries.Butinleapingtothisconclusion,CitizensUnitedfailstoengageinasufficientlydeepanalysisofrelevantFirstAmendmentrights.FirstAmendmentrightsprotectfreedomofspeechinordertopreservethepossibilityofself-government.TheFirstAmendmentassumesthatpersonsshouldbefreetoinfluencethecontentofpublicopinionandthatthegovernmentwillberesponsivetopublicopinion.Weassumethatelectionswillensurethatgovernmentisresponsivetopublicopinion.Ifelectionsdonotselectforrepresentativeswhoareattentivetopublicopinion,however,thelinkbetweenFirstAmendmentrightsandthevalueofself-governmentwilldisappear.Ifwedenominatethecapacityofelectionstoselectrepresentativeswhoareresponsivetopublicopinionaselectoralintegrity,legislationaimingtopreserveelectoralintegrityservesacompellingconstitutionalinterestforpurposesofFirstAmendmentanalysis.CitizensUnitedfailedtoaskwhetherthecampaignfinancelegislationitwasconsideringservedthepurposeofmaintainingelectoralintegrity.49.WhichofthefollowingisNOTaninteresttojustifycampaignfinancereform,accordingtoRobotPost?()(a)Eachpersonhasanequalopportunitytoberepresented.(b)Theelectionresultshouldbepublished.(c)People’sviewshouldbepresentedwithoutalteration.(d)Theelectedrepresentativesshouldperformtheirroleswith“cleanhands”.50.Whatisthemajordifferencebetweendiscursivedemocracyanddirectdemocracy?()(a)Peopledonotvotedirectly.(b)Itdoesnotmatterwhetherarepresentativecorrupts.(c)Thereisnobenchmarktomeasurewhetherpublicopinionisdistorted.(d)TheFirstAmendmentinterestsaremoreimportant.51.WhatcausesthelinkbetweenFirstAmendmentrightsandthevalueofself-governmenttodisappear?()(a)Whenelectionsdonotselectforrepresentativeswhoareattentivetopublicopinion.(b)Agovernmentisresponsivetopublicopinion.(c)Legislationprohibitscorporationsfrommakingindependentcampaignexpendituresdirectlyfromtheircorporatetreasuries.(d)Whenpersonsarefreetoinfluencethecontentofpublicopinion.52.WhatwasthemajorfailureofCitizensUnitedaccordingtotheauthor?()(a)Itsconclusionthatnoneofthethreeinterestsjustifiesthelegislationprohibitingcorporationsfrommakingindependentcampaignexpenditures.(b)ItmadenoanalysisofrelevantFirstAmendmentrights.(c)Itdidnotaskwhetherthecampaignfinancelegislationwascorrect.(d)Itjumpedtoitsconclusionwithoutanalyzingthelegislativepurpose.CriminalLawThreatstonationalsecurityandpublicsafety,whetherrealorperceived,resultinanatmosphereconducivetotheabuseofcivilliberties.Historyislitteredwithexamples:TheAlienandSeditionActsof1798,thesuspensionofhabeascorpusduringtheCivilWar,thePalmerRaidsduringWorldWarI,andMcCarthyismintheaftermathofWorldWarII.Unfortunately,thepost-9/11worldrepresentsnodeparturefromthisage-oldtrend.Evidenceofpost-9/11tensionbetweennationalsecurityandcivillibertiesisseenintheheightenedregulationofphotography;scholarshavelabeleditthe“WaronPhotography”—aconflictbetweenlawenforcementofficialsandphotographersovertherighttotakepicturesinpublicplaces.Inmanycases,policeofficersandprivatesecurityguardshaveinvokedblanketnotionsof“nationalsecurity”toprohibitthepressandprivatephotographersfromtakingpicturesofstructuresthatareinplainviewofthegeneralpublic.Inothercases,lawenforcementofficialshaveusedbroadlywordedcriminalstatutessuchas“obstructionofjustice”or“interferingwithapoliceofficer”toprohibitthepressandprivatephotographersfromtakingpartinwhatisconstitutionallyprotectedbehavior.AsimpleGooglesearchrevealscountlessincidentsofoverzealouslawenforcementofficialsdetainingorarrestingphotographersand,inmanycases,confiscatingtheircamerasandmemorycards,despitethefactthattheseindividualswereinlawfulplaces,atlawfultimes,partakinginlawfulactivities.Foratleasttworeasons,theargumentthattheheightenedregulationoftherighttotakepicturesinpublicplacesenhancesnationalsecurityorpublicsafetyisdeeplyflawed.First,theprevailingevidenceindicatesthattheperpetratorsofpastterroristattacksneverphotographedtheirtargets.Whywouldtheyneedto,afterall?TheInternetandmoderntechnologyhavemadeitpossibletoobtainpicturesofmoststructures,especiallyoneslocatedinurbanareas,withtheclickofamouse.Forexample,GoogleEarthprovidesimagesofalmostanyaddressinthecountryfromavarietyofdistancesandangles.Second,evenifterroristsdidphotographtheirtargets,itwouldbetotallyimpracticaltotrytostopthem.QuestioningforthepurposeofidentifyingpotentialterroristspersonstakingpicturesoftheEmpireStateBuildinginNewYorkCityortheWhiteHouseinWashington,D.C.,makeslesssensethantryingtofindaneedleinahaystack,because,chancesare,theneedledoesnotexist.53.Theauthorusestheexamplesinthefirstparagraphtoshowthat()(a)duringtheCivilWarhabeascorpuswassuspended.(b)aftertheWorldWarIItherewasforaperiodoftimeMcCarthyism.(c)theAlienandSeditionActswasadoptedin1798.(d)nationalsecurityandpublicsafetymaycauseanatmosphereencouragingtheabuseofcivilliberties.54.Whichofthefollowingdescribes“WaronPhotography”mostproperly?()(a)Itisawarbetweenlawenforcementofficialsandphotographers.(b)Itisthetensionbetweennationalsecurityandcivilliberties.(c)Itisafightbetweenpolicemenandphotographersovertherighttotakepicturesinpublicplaces.(d)Itisadeparturefromtheage-oldtrend.55.ThereasonsusedbylawenforcementofficialstoprohibitpeoplefromtakingpicturesofstructuresthatareinthegeneralpublicDONOTinclude()(a)nationalsecurity (b)overzealousnessoflawenforcementofficials(c)obstructionofjustice(d)interferingwithapoliceofficer56.Theauthorthinksthattoprohibittakingpicturesinpublicplacesenhancesnationalsecurityorpublicsafetyisdeeplyflawed.WhichofthefollowingisNOTareason?（）(a)Tofindoutpotentialterroristsisliketryingtofindaneedleinahaystack.(b)Theperpetratorsofpastterroristattacksneverphotographedtheirtargets.(c)Thereisnoneedtotakepicturesbecausemoderntechnologyhasmadeitpossibletoobtainpicturesofmoststructures,withtheclickofamouse.(d)Itisdifficulttryingtofindoutthepurposeoftakingpictures.CivilandCommercialLawTheabsenceofprivityofcontractprecludedapersonfromrecoveringagainstanegligentactorwhocausedthatpersonharm,whereverthenegligentactconstitutedabreachofcontractwithsomeoneelse.TheHouseofLordsinDonoghuev.Stevensonruledthatmanufacturersdidoweadutyofcaretotheultimateconsumernottocreaterisksofharmthroughthemanufacturingprocess.InreachingthisconclusiontheCourtexaminedthespecifickindsofdutieswhichthelawhadimposedinavarietyofsituationsandderivedtherefromageneralprincipleforthelawofnegligence.InthewordsofLordAtkin:AtpresentIcontentmyselfwithpointingoutthatinEnglishlawtheremustbe,andis,somegeneralconceptionofrelationsgivingrisetoadutyofcare,ofwhichtheparticularcasesfoundinthebooksarebutinstances.Theliabilityfornegligence,whetheryoustyleitsuchortreatitasinothersystemsasaspeciesof"culpa",isnodoubtbaseduponageneralpublicsentimentofmoralwrongdoingforwhichtheoffendermustpay.Butactsoromissionswhichanymoralcodewouldcensurecannotinapracticalworldbetreatedsoastogivearighttoeverypersoninjuredbythemtodemandrelief.Inthiswayrulesoflawarisewhichlimittherangeofcomplainantsandtheextentoftheirremedy.Therulethatyouaretoloveyourneighbourbecomesinlaw,youmustnotinjureyourneighbour;andthelawyer'squestion,Whoismyneighbour?receivesarestrictedreply.Youmusttakereasonablecaretoavoidactsoromissionswhichyoucanreasonablyforeseewouldbelikelytoinjureyourneighbour.Who,then,inlawismyneighbour?Theanswerseemstobe-personswhoaresocloselyanddirectlyaffectedbymyactthatIoughtreasonablytohavethemincontemplationasbeingsoaffectedwhenIamdirectingmymindtotheactsoromissionswhicharecalledinquestion.TheunderlyingstructureofthereasoningofLordAtkin'sjudgmentmaybestatedasfollows:(1)Thereareasetofcaseswherecourtshavefoundliabilityforfailingtotakecare.(2)Inthesecasesthecourtsestablishedastandardofcare.(3)Inthesesituationswecaninferfromthefactthatthelawimposesaduty(standardofcare)totakecare.Thelawofnegligenceextendstothiskindofactivity.57.Accordingtothefirstsentence,apersoninjuredmaynotbeabletorecoveragainstanegligentactorwhocausedtheharmbecause()(a)therelacksarelationofcontractbetweenthetwo.(b)theydonotknoweachother.(c)theactorisnegligent.(d)manufacturersdonotoweadutyofcaretotheultimateconsumer.58.LordAtkinthinksthat()(a)Englishlawdoesnothaveageneralconceptionofdutyofcare.(b)theliabilityfornegligenceshouldbestyledasaspeciesof"culpa".(c)theliabilityfornegligenceisbaseduponapublicunderstandingthatoffendersmustpayfortheirwrongdoing.(d)everypersoninjureds