语言学定义简答

（—）Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Languagedesignfeatures:〔.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Productivity4.Displacement5.CulturalLinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Thescopeoflinguistics:1.phonetics语音学thestudyofhowspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified.2.Phonology音系学thestudyofhowsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning3.morphology形态学:thestudyoftheformofwords4.syntax句法学thestudyofhowwordsandphrasesarecombinedtoformsentences5.semantics语义学:thestudyofmeaning6.pragmatics语用学:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuse7.historicallinguistics历史语言学:thestudyoflanguagechangeParole言语 therealizationoflangueinactualuse.Competence语言能力 theidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage（二）Phonetics（语音学）：Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscriptionArticulatoryphonetics发音语音学 fromthespeakers'pointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds";Auditoryphonetics声学语音学 fromthehearers'pointofview,“howsoundsareperceived";Acousticphonetics听觉语音学 fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanotherPhonetics&phonology音位学禾口语音学：Bothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Speechorgan发音器官:threeimportantareas：Pharyngealcavity thethroat;Theoralcavity themouth;Nasalcavity thenoseClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds:VowelsandConsonants（元音辅音分类）（发音方式）stops/plosives:塞音[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g];fricatives:擦音[f],[v],[s],[z],[W],[T],[F],[V],[h];affricates:塞擦音[tF],[dV];liquids:流音[l][r];nasals:鼻音[m],[n],[N];glides/semivowels:半元音[w],[j].（发音部位）bilabial:双唇音[p],[b],[m],[w];labiodental:唇齿音[f],[v];dental:齿音[W],[T];alveolar:齿龈音[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r];palatal:硬腭音[F],[V],[tF],[dV],[j];velar:软腭音[k],[g],[N];glottal:声门音[h].元音frontvowels:[I:],[I],[e],[Z],[A],[B];centralvowels:[E:],[E],[Q];backvowels:[u:],[u],[C:],[C],[B:].Close:[I:],[I],[u:],[u].Semi-close:[e],[E:];Semi-open:[E],[C];Open:[A],[B],[C],[B:],[Q];rounded:[u:],[u],[C:],[C];unrounded:[I:],[I],[e],[Z],[A],[B],[E:],[E],[Q],[B:].long:[I:],[E:],[u:],[C:],[B:]short:[I],[e],[Z],[A],[E],[Q],[B],[u],[C].Diphthongs/glidingvowels：[ei],[ai],[aU],[EU],[Ri],[iE],[ZE],[UE].Aphone aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phoneme音素 isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontextAllophone音位变体 thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.Phonemiccontrast音素上匕较:Phonemiccontrast differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrastComplementarydistribution互补分布 allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Minimalpair少数对 whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair(三略)Morphology形态学referstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Derivationalmorphemes派生语素 areaffixesaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.Inflectionalmorphemes曲折语素 themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaningMorphologicalrules:TherulesthatgoverntheformationofwordsSyntax句法学:abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Semantics语义学 thestudyoflanguagemeaning.Senseandreference系统意义和外指意义arebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Reference whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Majorsenserelations:Synonymy同义关系Antonymy反义关系Polysemy多义现象Homonymy同音异义;同形异义Hyponymy上下义关系Componentialanalysis成分分析法 awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Predicationanalysis树叶分析 awaytoanalyze sentence meaning;Predication theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.★★SemanticsSomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning:1.Namingtheory(Plato):Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings2.Theconceptualistview:Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3.OgdenandRichards:semantictriangle:Thesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.4.Contextualism(Bloomfield)Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Behaviorism:Behavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.Pragmatics语用学:thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.★Pragmaticsvs.semanticsSemantics区另H isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).Pragmatics thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),e.g.“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitation★★Speechacttheory:SpeechactsisatermderivedfromtheworkofthephilosopherJ.L.Austin（1962）andnowusedtorefertoatheorywhichanalyzestheroleofutterancesinrelationtothebehaviorofthespeakerandthehearerininterpersonalcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”*Austin'snewmodelofspeechactsSearle'sclassificationofspeechacts（1969）[Assertives/representatives（陈述）Directives（指令）Commissives（承诺）Expressives（表达）Declarations（宣布）]★★Principleofconversation（PaulGrice）:Cooperativeprinciple（CP） AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.（七） 构词法：coinage（创新词）clippedwords（缩略词）blending（混合法）acronyms（词首字母缩略词）back-formation（逆构词法）functionalshift（功能转换）borrowing（借代）Changesinthemeaningofwords语义转换:Wideningofmeaning;Narrowingofmeaning;Meaningshift（八） Speechcommunity语言社区 thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialsociolinguisticstudyiscalledthespeechcommunity。Regionaldialect（地域方言）Regionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion（e.g.Br.E.&Am.E.）.Socialdialects（社会方言）Sociolectisalinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.（e.g.ReceivedPronunciation）Apidgin混杂语言_isaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Creole克里奥耳语Whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeaCreole.Bilingualism双语现象Insomespeechcommunities,twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.ThisconstitutesthesituationofBilingualism.Diglossia双语现象referstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.Butinsteadoftwodifferentlanguages,inadiglossiasituationtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.★★Therelatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety:Therearemanyindicationsoftheinter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Languageisoftenusedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.（e.g.greeting）Theuseoflanguageisinpartdeterminedbytheuser'ssocialbackground.（socialclass,age,sex,educationlevel,etc.）Language,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.（“snow”forEskimo）Asasocialphenomenonlanguageiscloselyrelatedtothestructureofthesocietyinwhichitisused,theevaluationofalinguisticformisentirelysocial（thepostvocalic[r]）.（九）Culturaloverlap:文化重叠Culturaloverlapreferstotheidenticalpartofculturebetweentwosocietiesowingtosomesimilaritiesinthenaturalenvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeings.Culturaldiffusion文化扩散:Throughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomepartofcultureB,thisphenomenonisknownasculturaldiffusion.Onetypicalexampleofculturaldiffusionistheappearanceofloanwords.Interculturalorcross-culturalcommunicationiscommunicationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentcultures★★Thesignificanceofculturalteachingandlearning:Learningaforeignlanguageisinseparablefromlearningitsculture.Weneedtolearnenoughaboutthelanguage'sculturesothatwecancommunicateinthetargetlanguageproperlytoachievenotonlythelinguisticcompetencebutalsothepragmaticorcommunicativecompetenceaswell.★★Therelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture:Thesamewordmaystirupdifferentassociationsinpeopleunderdifferentculturalbackground.(e.g.dogbusyboy)Languageexpressesculturalreality,reflectsthepeople'sattitudes,beliefs,worldoutlooks,etc.Theculturebothemancipatesandconstrainspeoplesocially,historicallyandmetaphorically.Culturealsoaffectsitspeople'simaginationorcommondreamswhicharemediatedthroughthelanguageandreflectedintheirlife.★★Sapir-Whorfhypothesis理论：EdwardSapirandBenjaminWhorf,proclaimedthatthestructureofthelanguagepeoplehabituallyuseinfluencesthewaystheythinkandbehave,i.e.differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround,theythinkandspeakdifferently,thisisalsoknownaslinguisticrelativity.SapirandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeople'sperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.(十)★★Theoriesofchildlanguageacquisition:Theoriesofchildlanguageacquisition.:Abehavioristviewoflanguageacquisition(Skinners)行为主义语言习得理论Traditionalbehavioristsviewlanguageasbehaviorandbelievethatlanguagelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation.Aninnatistviewoflanguageacquisition(Chomsky)先天论理论Accordingtotheinnatistviewoflanguageacquisition.humanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedforlanguageandthatthelanguagedevelopsinthechildjustasotherbiologicalfunctionssuchaswalking.AninteractionistviewoflanguageacquisitionJeromeBrunerandJeanPiaget)语言习得的互动观Theinteractionistviewholdsthatlanguagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichthechilddevelops.CognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopmentCognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment:Achildfirstbecomesawareofaconcept.suchasrelativesize.andonlyafterwarddotheyacquirethewordsandpatternstoconveythatconcept.1)Languagedevelopmentisdependentonboththeconceptschildrenformabouttheworldandwhattheyfeelstimulatedtocommunicateattheearlyandlaterstagesoftheirlanguagedevelopment.2)Thecognitivefactorsdeterminehowthechildmakessenseofthelinguisticsystemhimselfinsteadofwhatmeaningsthechildperceivesandexpresses.Languageenvironment&thecriticalperiodhvpothesis(CPH):Twoimportantfactors:thelinguisticenvironmentchildrenareexposedtoandtheagetheystarttolearnthelanguage.Inbehavioristapproach.languageenvironmentplaysamajorroleinprovidingbothlanguagemodelstobeimitatedandnecessaryfeedbacksoTheinnatistviewemphasizesmoreonchildren'sinternalprocessingofthelanguageitemstobelearnt.Theenvironmentfunctionsasastimulusthattriggersandactivatesthepre-equippedUGtoprocessthematerialsprovidedbythelinguisticenvironmentaroundthechildren.Theinteractionistviewcallsforthequalityofthelanguagesamplesavailableinthelinguisticenvironment.onlywhenthelanguageismodifiedandadjustedtothelevelofchildren'scomprehension,dotheyprocessandinternalizethelanguageitemsCriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH):Thereisanidealwindowofopportunitywithinwhichweareprimedtoacquirelanguage:birth一puberty.workssuccessfullyonlywhenitisstimulatedattherighttime aspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition.ThestrongversionofCPHsuggeststhatchildrenmustacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyortheywillneverbeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.Theweakversionholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.(十一)★Interlangauge定义:learners'independentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.(Whatlearnersproduce,correctorwrong,areevidenceortheapproximationfromtheirfirstlanguagetothetargetlanguage.)Assumptionsaboutinterlanguage分析:1.Thelearnerconstructstheinterlanguagegrammar.2.Thelearner'sgrammarispermeable.ItisinfluencedbyexternalinputandbyinternalprocessesliketransferfromtheL1andovergeneralisation.3.Thelearner'sgrammaristransitional.Learnerschange,addanddeleterulesoverthecourseofdevelopment.4.Alearneremploysvariouslearningstrategiestodevelophisorherinterlanguage.Thesestrategiesprocesseslikesimplificationand(over)regularization.5.Thelearner'sgrammarmayfossilise.FossilisationoccurswhenalearnerstopslearningwhiletheinternalisedgrammarcontainsrulesdifferentfromthoseofthetargetsystemCharact