Principles语言学习与语言教学的原则908课后题

7.Whatisthedifferencebetweenamistakeandanerror?Howcanaforeignlanguageteachertellthedifferencebetweenthetwointhespeechoflearners?Whyisitimportanttodistinguishbetweenmistakesanderrors?Key:Amistakereferstoaperformanceerrorthatiseitherarandomguessora"slip,"inthatitisafailuretoutilizeaknownsystemcorrectly.Allpeoplemakemistakes,inbothnativeandsecondlanguagesituations.Anerrorisanoticeabledeviationfromtheadultgrammarofanativespeaker,reflectingtheinterlanguagecompetenceofthelearner.IfanEnglishlearnersays“Johncanssing/'butonotheroccasionssays"Johncansing,”itisdifficulttodclcrmincwhether"cans"isamistakeoranerror.If.however,furtherexaminationoftheIcamcfsspeechrevealssuchutterancesas"Johnwillsgo/"Johnmayscome/'andsoforth,withveryfewinstancesofcorrectthird・pe2nsingularusageofmodalauxiliaries,youmightthenconcludethat"cans：'"mays/andothersuchformsareerrorsindicatingthatthelearnerhasnotdistinguishedmcxlalsfromotherverbs,thoughpcrhaps-becauscofthefewcorrectinstances—sheisonthevergeofmakingthenecessarydifferentiationbetweenthetwotypesofverbsinhersystematicconceptionofthesecondlanguage・Erroranalysisbecamedistinguishedfromcontrastiveanalysisbyitsexaminationoferrorsattributabletoallpossiblesources,notjustthosewhichresultfromnegativetransferofthenativelanguage・Erroranalysiseasilysupersededcontrastiveanalysis,aswediscoveredthatonlysomeoftheerrorsalearnermakesarealtributabletothemothertongue・thatlearnersdonotactuallymakealltheerrorsthatcontrastiveanalysispredictedtheyshould.andthatlearnersfromdisparatelanguagebackgroundstendtomakesimilarerrorsinlearningonetargetlanguage.Errors-ovcrtmanifestationsoflearners*systcms-ariscfromseveralpossiblegeneralsources:interlingualerrorsofinterferencefromthenativelanguage,intralingualerrorswithinthetargetlanguage,thesociolinguisticcontextofcommunication,psycholinguisticorcognitivestrategies,andnodoubtcountlessaffectivevariables・&WhatdidCordermeanbyovertandcoverterrors?Whyistheterminologymisleading?Canyouthinkofexamplesofcommonsentence-levelanddiscourse-levelerrorsmyourforeignlanguage?Key:Overterrorsreferstoungrammaticalsentences・Coverterrorsreferstosuperficiallywell-formedsentences,butwhichmakenosenseinthecontext.Forexample,“Whoareyou? I'mfine,thankyou."thisiscoverterro匚“1hasabook."isaoverterror.12.Fossilizationandlearningareactuallytheresultofthesamecognitiveprocessesatwork・Explainthis.Then,trytothinkoffactorsotherthanufeedback^thatcouldcauseorcontributetofossilization.Oncealanguageformisfossilized,caniteverbecorrected?Key:SomewhereintheL2learningprocess,suchanILmayreachoneormoretemporaryrestrictingphasesduringwhichthedevelopmentoftheILappearstobedetained・ApermanentcessationofprogresstowardtheTLhasbeenreferredtoasfossilization.Thislinguisticphenomenon,ILfossilization,occurswhenprogressintheacquisitionofL2isarrested,despiteallreasonableattemptsatlearning・Fossilizationincludesthoseitems,rules,andsub-systemsthatL2learnerstendtoretainintheirILwhileintheprocessofacquiringaparticularTL,i.e.,fossilizationencompassesthoseaspectsofILthatbecomeentrenchedandpermanent,andthatwillonlybeeliminatedwithconsiderableeffort,forthemajorityofL2learners,regardlessofexplanationorinstruclion.Moreover,ithasalsobeennoticedthatadultL2learners'ILsystems,inparticular,haveatendency,orpropensity,tobecomestagnatedorsolidified,i.e”thelanguagelearnersmakenofurtherprogressinILdevelopmenttowardtheTL,andbecomepermanentlyfossilized,inspiteoftheamountofexposuretotheL2・

Gobacktoyourdefinitionsoflanguage,learning,andteachingthatyouformulatedatthebeginningofthisbook.Howmightyourevisethosedefinitionsnow?Key:Atthebeginningofthisbook,Mydefinitionoflanguageis“agenerativeuniversalsystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforcommunicationinaspeechcommunity”.Mydefinitionoflearningis“theactiveacquisitionofknowledgewhichinvolvescognitiveprocesses”・Mydefinitionofteachingis"theeffectivewayofimpartingknowledge”.Now1wouldliketoredefinelanguageas“asystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforcommunication^.Iwouldliketodefinelearningas“iheacquisitionofknowledgeandabilities：Iwouldliketodefineteachingas“theprocessofimpartingknowledgeandcultivatingabilities^.2.AttitudesStereotypingusuallyimpliessometypeofattitudetowardthecultureorlanguageinquestion・Attitudesdevelopearlyinchildhoodandarctheresultofparents'andpeers'attitudes,contactwithpeoplewhoare"difterenf,inanynumberofways,andinteractingeffectivefactorsinthehumanexperience.Secondlanguagelearnersbenefitfrompositiveattitudesandthatnegativeattitudesmayleadtodecreasedmotivationandinalllikelihood,becauseofdecreasedinputandinteraction,tounsuccessfulattainmentofproficiency.Negativeattitudesusuallyemergeeitherfromfalsestereotypingorfromundueethnocentrism・2.态度定式常常含有对文化或语育的态度。态度在童年早期开始形成，受父母和同伴的态度的影响，在个人与不同的人的交往过程中，在多种因素的相互作用下慢慢形成。第二语言学习者得益于积极的态度。消极的态度会降低动机，造成语言输入和人际互动减少，导致学习效果不好。消极的态疫常常源于错误的定式或过度的民族优越感。2.态度定式常常含有对文化或语育的态度。态度在童年早期开始形成，受父母和同伴的态度的影响，在个人与不同的人的交往过程中，在多种因素的相互作用下慢慢形成。第二语言学习者得益于积极的态度。消极的态度会降低动机，造成语言输入和人际互动减少，导致学习效果不好。消极的态疫常常源于错误的定式或过度的民族优越感。Key:Secondlanguageisanacceptedlinguafrancausedforeducation,government,orbusinesswithinthecountry.Secondlanguagelearningiswithinone'sovvnnativeculturewithmanyopportunitiestousethesecondlanguage・Foreignlanguagelearningislearninganonnativclanguageinone'sownculturewithfewimmediateandwidespreadopportunitiestousethelanguagewithintheenvironmentofone'sownculture・Inteacherasecondlanguage,thereisprobablynoseriousculturalconflict,soteacherscanputmoreemphasisonlinguisticdevelopmentofthestudents・Inteachingaforeignlanguage,teacherscanprovideculturaltopicsforabetterunderstandingthepeopleoftheforeignculture・

III.Language,Thought,andCultureIII.语言■思维和文化III.语言■思维和文化文化是语言和思想的交融。文化模式、习俗以及生活方式都通过语言农达出來，同时带有某种文化特征的世界观也在语言中体现。根Sapir-Whorf假说，语言系统（即语法）不只是表达思想的工具，也是形成思想的媒介，它指引个人的精神活动、分析性思维以及综合性思维。思想的形成不是一个独立的过程，而是语法的一部分，而且或多或少地随着语法的变化而变化。AccordingtotheSapir-Whorfhypothesis,thebackgroundlinguisticsystem(inotherwords,thegrammar)ofeachlanguageisnotmerelyareproducinginstrumentforvoicingideasbutratherisitselftheshaperofideas,theprogramandguidefortheindividuafsmentalactivity,forhisanalysisofimpressions,forhissynthesisofhismentalstockintrade.Formulationofideasisnotanindependentprocess,butispartofaparticulargrammaranddiffers,fromslightlytogreatly,asbetweendifferentgrammars.Considersomeofthecultureswithwhichyouarcfamiliarandlistvariousstereotypesofthosecultures・Shareyourstereotypeswiththoseofaclassmateorfriendandcompareyourperceptions・Howmightthosestereotypeshelpyoutounderstandsomeonefromanotherculture?Howmighttheyhinderyourunderstanding?Key:Chinesecultureshowsmuchrespecttothesenior.Chinesecultureattachesmuchimportancetothestabilityoffamilylife.Thosestereotypescanhelponetounderstandthetypicalcharacteristicsofsomeonefromanotherculture,sincetheymaybeaccurateindepictingthe"typical"memberofaculture・However,thosestereotypesmighthindertheunderstandingofapersonfromanotherculture・Theycannottelleverythingaboutthisperson,sincetheyareinaccuratefordescribingaparticularperson.Discusssensitivecross-culturaldifferences(religious,political,social,orpersonalissues)withsomeonefromanotherculture.Canyouempathize(notnecessarilysympathize)withthosedifferences?Inyourdiscussion,whatattitudeswerereflectedtowardyourculture?Whatattitudesdoyouthinkyouexpressedtowardtheotherculture?Key:InChina,religiousbeliefisasensitiveissue・Chinesepeopledonottalkmuchabouttheirownreligiousbeliefs・InBritish,religiousbeliefisapublicissue・ItiswellknownthatmostWesternpeopleareChristians.Ithinkitisnormal.ChinesepeopleholdfirmbeliefinancientsagesandtheirwisdomssuchasConfucius.BritishpeoplebelieveinGodwhoteachesthemwisdomsthatarenecessaryforlivingahappylifeinthisworld.Thoughtherearedifferencesintheattitudestowardreligiousbelief,peoplebelieveingoodnessandwisdom,andpursuehappinessalike.Ithinkitisadecisionthatonecanmakeforhimself.Eachtypeofculturehasitsowncharacteristics・Soitwouldbebettertorespectdifferentcultures.Myattitudetendstobeobjective.IagreewithChineseculture,andIalsorespecttheotherculture.Trytothinkofsomeareaofyouraffectiveorcognitiveselfinwhichyoufeelsomeprejudicetowardmembersofanothercultureorevenasubculture(suchaspeoplefromdifferentpartsofyourowncountry).Whatarethedeeplyseatedcausesofthatprejudice?Shouldyouovercomethatprejudice?Howmightapersongoabouteradicatingsuchnegativeattitudes?Key:Ihavesomeprejudicetowardspeoplewhohaveaverydifferentlifestyle.Ilikelivingasimpleandregularlife,onlypurchasingthemostnecessarythingsfromsupermarkets,nottalkingmuchwithpeople,doingcleaningonweekends,andsoforth.SomefriendsofmineandsomeforeignteachersinChinaliketryingnewthings,travellingtodifferentplaces,holdingpartiesfromtimetotime,andgoingtosleeplateatnight.Personallyspeaking,Icannotbenefitfromtheirwayofliving・Itseemstoonoisyforme.Theremaybedeeplyseatedcausesofthatprejudice.Ihavebeenaccustomedtoasimplelife.Ispentmychildhoodinthecountrywheretherewerenotmanypeopleandthewayoflivingwassimple.1think1shouldovercomethatprejudice・Ihavetriedtotakepartinmoreactivities,andfinally1maintainedmyownwayofliving・Luckily,myfriendsunderstcxxlmewellandthefriendshipbetweenuskeptgoing,thoughweweredifferentinsomeway.Inordertoeradicatesuchnegativeattitudes,apersoncanlearntorespectdifferentkindsofpeopleandculture・Infact,thereisnoneedtoworrythatpeoplearoundyouorfromanotherculturearedifferentfromyou.Eachindividualisparticular.Justbepolite,respectotherpeople,andtrytomakefriendswith(hem.Ifyouhaveeverlivedinanothercountry,canyounowidentifysomeofthestagesofacculturationinyourownexperience?Describeyourfeelings・Didyoumovethroughallfourstages?Didyoureachassimilation?Oradaptation?Didyouexperienceanemia?Key:Ihavenotlivedinanothercountry,butseveralyearsago,ImovedfromhomeinsouthernpartofChinatocollegethatisinnorthernpartofChina.Thereisacculturationinthisprocess.Atfirst.Iwasexcitedaboutthenewthingsinthesurroundings,includingtheaccentofnorthernstudentsinthecollege・ThenIfoundthatIdislikethefood・Peopleatenoodlesordumplingsforlunch,andthedishestasteddifferent.Ijustdonotlikeit.SoIatebreadforeachmealinaday.SometimesIjustatefruits.Iwasnothappy.Afteraperiodoftime,Itriedtoeatallkindsoffoodprovidedinthecollege・SometimesIgotwhatIlikedtoeat,andmoreoftenIdidnotlikethefoodatall.Tomysurprise,ayearlater,IdidnotfeelanythingwrongwhenIatethefoodinthecollege.ItseemedthatIacceptedthetastesofthefoodinthenorth・ItcanbeseenthatImovedthroughallfourstagesofacculturation.Finally,Ireachedassimilation,orsay,adaptation・IdidexperienceanemiawhenIdidnotacceptthedifference.10.Inwhatwayareprinciplesofcommunicativelanguageteachingoperatinginmethodsthathavebeensummarizedinprevious"intheclassroom''vignettes?Key:Communicativelanguageteachingmakesuseofreal-lifesituationsthatnecessitatecommunication.Theteachersetsupasituationthatstudentsarelikelytoencounterinreallife.Unliketheaudiolingualmethodoflanguageteaching,whichreliesonrepetitionanddrills,thecommunicativeapproachcanleavestudentsinsuspenseastotheoutcomeofaclassexercise,whichwillvaryaccordingtotheirreactionsandresponses.Thereal-lifesimulationschangefromdaytoday.Studentsthethird(recovery)stageofacculturation.Personallyspeaking,Ihavenotfoundanysupportforthenotionofaculturallydefinedcriticalperiod・haveknownpeoplewhoprogressedwellintoStage3withoutlinguisticmastery・TherearcmanyteacherswhocomefromoutsideChinasuchasAmericaorAustralia・TheyteachEnglishatcollegeorincompanies.SomeofthemhavelivedinChinaformanyyears,eatingChinesefood,workingwithChineseteachers,andlivingahappylifeinChina.However,manyofthemknowlittleaboutChineselanguage・TheseEnglishteachersprogressedwellintoStageofacculturationwithoutlinguisticmasteryinChinesethethird(recovery)stageofacculturation.Personallyspeaking,Ihavenotfoundanysupportforthenotionofaculturallydefinedcriticalperiod・haveknownpeoplewhoprogressedwellintoStage3withoutlinguisticmastery・TherearcmanyteacherswhocomefromoutsideChinasuchasAmericaorAustralia・TheyteachEnglishatcollegeorincompanies.SomeofthemhavelivedinChinaformanyyears,eatingChinesefood,workingwithChineseteachers,andlivingahappylifeinChina.However,manyofthemknowlittleaboutChineselanguage・TheseEnglishteachersprogressedwellintoStageofacculturationwithoutlinguisticmasteryinChinese・TheirlanguageproficiencyinChinesehasnotdevelopedwell.TheyjusthavenointerestinlearningChinesewell,buttheykeeppickingupalittle