世界银行-对妇女工资歧视的偏好（英）-2023.8

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PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10548

PreferencesforWageDiscriminationagainstWomen

WilliamSeitz

PovertyandEquityGlobalPractice

August2023

ProducedbytheResearchSupportTeam

PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10548

Abstract

conventionallevelsinallthreecountries,amongbothmaleandfemalerespondents,andineachoftheeightoccupa-tionsstudied.Theresultsalsodemonstratethepresenceofsignificantbiasinfavororolderworkers,specificallyforwhite-collaroccupations,andtheabsenceofthisrela-tionshipfortheblue-collaroccupationsincludedintheexperiment.Thefindingsreinforcetheimportanceofbiasasacontributingfactortothegenderpaygap,andthevalueofequalpayregulationstopreventgenderdiscriminationinwagesetting.

Thisstudydemonstratessystematicbiasagainstwomenin

publicperceptionsofthefairnessofwages.Innationally

representativesurveyexperimentsacrossmorethan70,000

individualvignettesposedto4,500respondentsinthree

CentralAsiancountries,respondentswere13percentmore

likelytosaywageswere“toohigh”whentherandomly

assignedpersondescribedinthevignette(subject)was

awoman,and34percentmorelikelytosaytheywere

“toolow”whenthesubjectwasaman.Thepatternofbias

favoringhigherwagesformenisstatisticallysignificantat

ThispaperisaproductofthePovertyandEquityGlobalPractice.ItispartofalargereffortbytheWorldBanktoprovideopenaccesstoitsresearchandmakeacontributiontodevelopmentpolicydiscussionsaroundtheworld.PolicyResearchWorkingPapersarealsopostedontheWebat/prwp.Theauthormaybecontactedatwseitz@.

ThePolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeriesdisseminatesthefindingsofworkinprogresstoencouragetheexchangeofideasaboutdevelopmentissues.Anobjectiveoftheseriesistogetthefindingsoutquickly,evenifthepresentationsarelessthanfullypolished.Thepaperscarrythenamesoftheauthorsandshouldbecitedaccordingly.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/WorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.

1TheWorldBank,PovertyandEquityinCentralAsia,E-mail:

wseitz@.

PreferencesforWageDiscriminationagainstWomen

WilliamSeitz

1

KeyWords:Discrimination,genderequality,genderwagegap,equalpayforworkofequalvalue,CentralAsia.Acknowledgments:TechnicalandfinancialsupportfromtheUKForeignCommonwealthandDevelopmentofficeisgratefullyacknowledged.IamgratefulforthereviewandfeedbackprovidedbyWorldBankreviewers:AnaMariaMunozBoudetandPatriciaFernandes.

2

Introductionandcountrycontext

Althoughtherighttoequalremunerationforwomenandmenforworkofequalvaluehasbeenacknowledgedindozensofinternationalaccordsoverthepastcentury,womenaroundtheworldcontinuetoearnremarkablylessthanmen.Thegenderpaygap,asummaryindicatorofthisphenomenon,referstothedifferenceinaveragewagesearnedbymenandwomen.AccordingtotheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO),theglobalgapstoodat20percentin2022,

2

meaningthatwomenonaverageearnedabout80centsforeachdollarmenearned.Whiledifferencesinthecharacteristicsofworkers—suchastheirlevelofeducation,skilltypes,hoursworked,occupationalchoices,andexperience—explainsomeofthisgap,asignificantportionremainsunexplainedbyobservableworkercharacteristicsotherthangender.Thispaperdescribestheresultsofastudyusinganexperimentaldesigntoinvestigatetheroleofpublicattitudesinwagesetting,andperceptionsofwagefairnessamongnationallyrepresentativesamplesofthepopulationsofthreecountriesinCentralAsia.Theresultsidentifyasystematicnegativebiasinpublicperceptionsofthevalueofwomen’swork.

Theconsequencesofthegenderpaygaparefar-reaching—affectingindividuals,families,firms,andsocietyatlarge.Onanindividuallevel,paygapsreducetheearningsofwomenoverthecourseoftheircareers,resultinginreducedmonetarywelfarethroughoutawomen’sworkinglife,lesseconomicautonomy(duetothefewerresourcesaccumulated),lowerretirementsavings,andtheconsequencesofgreatervulnerabilityinoldage.Incontrast,onaveragemorehouseholdearningstranslatetobetterlivingstandardsforallhouseholdmembers,betterhealth,andimprovededucationoutcomes.Attheleveloffirmsandemployers,unfairnesshasimportanteffectsonproductivity.Forinstance,intheirmeta-analysisonworkplaceattitudes,Tirana,et.al.(2019)foundperceptionsofworkplace-levelgenderpayinequalitytobestronglyassociatedwithreducedmotivationandjobsatisfactionacrossarangeofstudies.Potentialnegativeeffectsinthatstudyextendedtophysicalhealthoutcomesandbehaviors,psychologicalhealth,andmanywork-relatedoutcomes(bothjob-basedandrelationship-based).Numerouspotentialsourcesofbiasinwagesettinghavebeendocumented,includingperceivedlowerattachmenttoemployment(Barronetal,1993;BlauandKhan,2017),stereotypes(Bordaloetal.2016,Coffmanetal.2021),anddifferencesinnegotiatingbehavior(AzmatandPetrongolo2014).Theprevalenceoftheseformsofbiasrisksentrenchinggenderstereotypesandmakessocialandcareeradvancementmoredifficultforwomen.Byperpetuatingtheideathatmen'sworkismorevaluablethanwomen'swork,imbalancescanreinforcebroadertrendswithrespecttogenderinequalityanddiscrimination,whilereducingthesegapstendstogeneratevirtuouscycles,incentivizinghigherlaborforceparticipation.

Inaggregate,thegenderpaygapisalsoafirst-ordereconomicconcernatthenationallevel.Whenwomenareempoweredandhaveequalopportunitiestomen,theycancontributetotheeconomytotheirfullpotential,leadingtoamorediverseanddynamicworkforce.Genderequalityinlabormarketopportunitiesthusstronglyinfluencesproductivitygrowth,innovation,andcompetitiveness.Higherhouseholdincomescanalsogeneratefastereconomicgrowththroughmultipliereffectsonaggregatedemand.TheWorldEconomicForumestimatesthatifwomenparticipatedintheeconomyidenticallytomen,globalGDPin2025wouldincreasebyasmuchas26percent(WEF2022).

2ILO:

Newdatashinelightongendergapsinthelabourmarket.

3

ThesepatternsholdespeciallytrueinthecontextofCentralAsia,thesettingoftheexperimentalstudydescribedinthesectionsthatfollow.Ifwomenweretoparticipateinequalmeasuretomen,nationalincomewouldbe27percenthigherinKazakhstan,29percenthigherinUzbekistan,and39percenthigherintheKyrgyzRepublic.InUzbekistan,WorldBankestimatessuggestthatequalizingtheaveragewageamongwomenandmenwhoarealreadyworkingwouldalonepullmorethan700,000peopleoutofpoverty(WorldBank,2023).

Butalthoughmeasuringthepresenceofgenderdifferencesinwagerates(andincomes)isroutine,clearlyidentifyingsystematicbiasanddiscriminationagainstwomeninwagesettingismorechallenging.AcommonapproachtoinvestigatingdifferencesinwagesandthepotentialfordiscriminationisamethodintroducedbyBlinder(1973)andOaxaca(1973),whichmeasureswagedifferencesbetweengroupsusingadecompositiontechnique.Theapproachidentifiestheproportionofthewagedifferentialbetweengroupsthatcanbeattributedtodifferencesinthelevelsofcharacteristicsbetweenthem(forinstance,differinglevelsofeducationorexperience).Then,assumingidenticalcharacteristicsinthetwogroups,theremaininginequalitycanbeattributedtodifferentialeffectsofthecharacteristics(suchasdiscrimination)aswellasanyunobservedfactors.WeichselbaumerandWinter-Ebmer(2005)conductedameta-analysisof1,535suchestimatesandfoundthatalthoughthegenderwagegaphasbeensteadilydecliningfordecades—fromaround65inthe1960stoaround20inrecentyears—improvementsarealmostentirelyattributabletobetterlabormarketendowmentsofwomen(suchasbettereducation,training,andworkattachment).Atthesametime,theunexplainedcomponentofthewagegap—wherepotentialdiscriminationresides—hasnotsystematicallydeclinedsincethe1960s.Penneret.al.(2022)showedthatalthoughworkercharacteristicsandselectioneffectsplayanimportantroleinthepaygap,datathatidentifywomenandmenwhodothesameworkforthesameemployeroftenrevealsignificantwithin-jobpaydifferencesinthe11countriestheystudy.

Thereisalsostrongindirectevidencethatthegenderwagegapisduetoviewsandattitudesratherthanability.Maloney(2022)showsthatmisogyny,asproxiedbyderogatoryinternetsearchterms,isaneconomicallymeaningfulandstatisticallysignificantpredictorofthewagegapatthelocallevel.Suchdriversareoftenreferredtoastaste-baseddiscrimination,asopposedtomotivationsbasedondifferentialoutcomessuchasaveragegroupproductivitylevels,whichareoftenreferredtoasformsofstatisticaldiscrimination(BertrandandDuflo,2017).Takencollectively,theseandsimilarstudiessuggestthatdiscriminationagainstwomenremainsaconsequentialfactorinwagedifferencesaroundtheworld.

Onecommonlycitedfactorpotentiallydrivinglowerpayforwomenthanmenisoftenreferredtoasthe“paradoxofthecontentedfemaleworker.”Itissupposedthatanapparenttendencyforwomenmoreoftentoreportsatisfactionwiththeirworkcomparedtomeninthesameoccupations(andattimesthesameemployer)couldcontributetopersistentgenderpaydifferences.ButasAdriaansandTarga(2023)show,inmanycountries,overallsatisfactionwithworkdoesnotalwaystranslatetosatisfactionwithcompensation.Womenareinfactmorelikelythanmentobedissatisfiedwiththeirownlevelofcompensationin15ofthe28countriesstudiedbytheauthors.Thus,potentialsatisfactiondifferentialsappearcontextspecificandareunlikelytoexplainsystematicallylowerpayforwomenatthegloballevel.

TheseconcernsareespeciallyrelevantintheCentralAsiancountriesofUzbekistan,theKyrgyzRepublic,andKazakhstan—wheregenderinequalityinlabormarketoutcomesposessignificantchallenges.Accordingtogovernmentstatistics,onaverage,payamongworkingwomenisabout39percentlessthanmen'spayinUzbekistan,25percentlessintheKyrgyzRepublic,and22percentlessinKazakhstan,higher

4

10.9

10.7

thantheglobalaverageineachcase.Withuniversalcoverageofprimaryandsecondaryeducation,womenachieverelativelyhighlevelsofeducationinallthreecounties(figure1),makingsuchnotablegenderpaygapsparticularlystriking.

Figure1:SummarymeasuresofeducationalattainmentinCentralAsia

ExpectedyearsofschoolingGrosstertiaryenrollmentrate(%)

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

15.8

15.1

12.2

13.212.7

12.6

11.9

11.5

TJKUZBKAZTKMKGZ

WomenMen

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

68

55

47

37

35

27

2729

16

13

TJKUZBKAZTKMKGZ

WomenMen

Source:WorldDevelopmentIndicatorsandNationalStatisticalOffices.

TakingUzbekistanasanexamplethatillustrateschallengesacrosstheregion,thegendergapinlaborforceparticipationisstronglylinkedtobotheducationalattainmentandthenumberofchildrenlivinginthehousehold(figure2).Only6percentofwomenwithgeneralsecondaryeducationorbelow,and12percentofwomenwithuppersecondaryeducation,areactiveinthelabormarketcomparedto18percentand45percentofmen,respectively.However,52percentofwomenwithbachelor’sdegreesorhigherareactiveinthelabormarket,whichismorecomparabletothe60percentlaborparticipationrateformenwithbachelor’sdegrees.Furthermore,women(ages16+)inthebottomtwowealthquintilesweremorethan50percentlikelytobeinactiveorunemployed,whereas39percentofmeninthelowestwealthquintileand32percentofmeninthesecondlowestquintilewereeitherinactiveorunemployed.Havingyoungchildrenalsoaffectfemaleandmalelaborforceparticipationdifferently.Havingyoungchildrenhasdistincteffectsonfemaleandmalelaborforceparticipation.Inthecaseofmen,havingmoreyoungchildrenisassociatedwithahigherlikelihoodofworking.Forwomen,itisthereverse,womenaremuchlesslikelytoworkoutsidethehomeifmorechildrenarepresent.

5

100%90%80%70%60%50%40%30%20%10%0%

74%

43%

33%

11%

0%

primaryorless

7%

Figure2:Employment'sLinktoEducationandHouseholdCompositioninUzbekistan

Employmentratebyeducational

attainment

generalsecondary

highvocationaltertiaryschoo;

MaleFemale

Source:HouseholdBudgetSurveyofUzbekistan,2022

Employmentratebynumberofchildreninhousehold

100%90%80%70%60%50%40%30%20%10%0%

01234567+

MaleFemale

Inallthreesocieties,intrahouseholdpowertendstobeimbalanced,andgendernormstendtobemoretraditional,withwomenexpectedtoprioritizecaregivingresponsibilitiesandmenexpectedtobetheprimarybreadwinners(figure3).Theseexpectationscanlimitwomen'sparticipationinthelabormarketandtheiropportunitiesforcareeradvancement.Additionally,womeninallthreecountriesareunderrepresentedinleadershippositionsandaremorelikelytoworkinlower-payingoccupations(MuradovaandSeitz(2021)showthisisdueinparttodiscriminatoryhiringpractices).

Figure3:Survey-basedperceptionsofwomen'sroleinworkandfamilylife

Agree:Womenshouldearnlessthanmentosustainpeaceinthefamily

UZB

Urban RuralNational

34%

KGZ

Urban RuralNational

20%

42%

KAZ

Urban RuralNational

0%10%20%30%40%50%

Source:ListeningtoCentralAsiasurveys,2022

Agree:Womenshouldspendlesstimeworkingthanmentodedicatetimeathome

UZB

Urban RuralNational

7

KGZ

Urban RuralNational

73%

74%

KAZ

Urban RuralNational

50%60%70%80%

90%

6

Globally,legalprovisionsthatrequireequalpayforworkofequalvaluetoaddressthepotentialforsuchbiasedperspectivesarecommon(currentlycoveringworkersinatleast95countries)andbecomingmoreso.Theeffectivenessoftheselegalremediestoatleastpartiallyreducethegenderpaygapiswellestablished.Forinstance,CruzandRau(2016)findtheintroductionofequalpayprovisionsinChilereducedthefirmpremiumgendergapby6.1percent,aneffectdrivenprimarilybyincreasedbargainingpowerforwomen.AllOECDcountrieshavesomeformofequalpayforworkofequalvalueprovision,andinrecentyears,manyadvancedeconomieshavestrengthenedprovisionstoincludemandatorypaytransparencytomakeequalpayprovisionsmoreeffective.Forinstance,in2018theGovernmentofIcelandintroducedalawrequiringallemployerswithmorethan25staffmemberstopublishdetailedpayinformation,andinregulatoryfilingsfirmsmustactivelyprovetheygiveequalpayforworkofequalvalue.

ButsuchequalpayprovisionsareabsentacrossmostofCentralAsia.IntheKyrgyzRepublic,thereisnoexplicitequalpayforworkofequalvalueprovisioninthelaborcodeorotherregulationsfocusedonemployeepay.

3

Likewise,Kazakhstandoesnotexplicitlyrequireequalpayforworkofequalvalue.

4

Uzbekistanalonemandatesequalpayforequalworkprovisions,whichwereincludedinUzbekistan’slaborcodesignedintolawbyPresidentMirzoevinOctober2022andenteredintoforceinApril2023.ThisisthefirstexplicitprovisionofthistypeinaCentralAsiancountrytoprotectworkersfrompaydiscrimination.

5

Toshedlightonthepotentialroleofbeliefsaboutthevalueofwomen’sworkcomparedtothatofmeninexplainingthegenderwagegap,asurveyexperimentwasincludedinthreenationallyrepresentativesurveysinCentralAsiain2022.Theexperimenttooktheformofvignettesaboutworkerswithrandomlyassignedcharacteristicsthatwerereadaloudtoapproximately4,500residentsofKazakhstan,KyrgyzRepublic,andUzbekistan.Eachrespondentwasaskedaboutasetof8vignettesperinterview,eachoftheeightfocusedonaspecificoccupation.Thelistofoccupationswasstandardizedsuchthateveryrespondentwastoldonevignetteforthesame8occupationsinthesameorder.Followingeachvignette,respondentswereaskedwhethertheythoughtthepersondescribedwas:“severelyunderpaid,underpaid,fairlypaid,overpaid,orseverelyoverpaid.”Overthecourseoftwomonthsmorethan70,000evaluationsoffairearningsweregatheredinthisform.

Theresultsshowaclearandsystematicbiasagainstthevalueofwomen’swork.Eventhoughthepromptswereidenticalineveryotherrespect,respondentswere13percentmorelikelytosaywageswere“severelyoverpaid”whenthepersondescribedinthevignette(subject)wasawoman,and34percentmorelikelytosaytheywere“severelyunderpaid”whenthesubjectwasaman.

Thefindingssuggestthatthesocialcontextisonaveragebiasedagainstwomenwiththesameprofileasaman,whichlikelyplaysasignificantroleinperpetuatinggenderinequalityinthelabormarketandthesizeofthegenderwagegapinCentralAsia.Thepresenceofthissystematicbiasagainstwomenreinforcestheimportanceoflegalprovisionstoensureequalpayforworkofequalvalue,andtheimportanceofchallengingandchangingthenormsthatperpetuategenderinequalitymorebroadly.

3DetailsfromtheWorldBank’sWomenBusinessandtheLawreportaresummarizedhere:

/content/dam/documents/wbl/2021/snapshots/Kyrgyz-republic.pdf

,accessedOctober27,2022.

4DetailsfromtheWorldBank’sWomenBusinessandtheLawreportaresummarizedhere:

/content/dam/documents/wbl/2021/snapshots/Kazakhstan.pdf.

5DetailsfromtheWorldBank’sWomenBusinessandtheLawreportaresummarizedhere:

/content/dam/documents/wbl/2021/snapshots/Uzbekistan.pdf

,accessedOctober27,2022.

7

Dataandmethods

TheexperimentwasembeddedintheListeningtoCentralAsiaseriesofsurveysintheKyrgyzRepublic,Uzbekistan,andKazakhstan,surveysthataredesignedtocontinuouslymonitorwellbeingandviewsontopicalpolicyissues.

6

Thesurveysarecollectedfromasingle(“omniscient”)householdmember,andhouseholdselectionwasdesignedfornationalrepresentativeness.

Fieldworkwasconductedintwophases.Inthefirstphase,anationalin-personhouseholdsurveywasconductedineachcountryusingregionallystratifiedtwostageclustersamplingprocedures.Inthesecondstage,arandomlyselectedsub-samplefromthefirststageineachcountrywasrecruitedinamonthlypanelsurveyusingaphone-basedmethodconductedbyprivatesurveycompaniesunderthedirectionofWorldBankstaff.Thesub-sampleswereeachnationallyrepresentativeandforthepresentstudyincludeatotalof6,783individualresponses(inUzbekistan,theKyrgyzRepublic,andinKazakhstan).DatacollectionforthesurveyexperimentwasconductedinMay-June2021.

Forthecoreexperiment,respondentswereassignedasetof8separatevignettes,eachwiththreerandomlygeneratedcomponentsoftheform:“A<RANDOMAGE>-year-old<RANDOMGENDER>worksas<OCCUPATION>.<HER/HISbasedonRANDOMGENDER>monthlygrossearningstotal<RANDOMMONTHLYPAY>(beforetaxesandextracharges).”Followingeachvignette,therespondentwasasked:“Isthispersonseverelyoverpaid,overpaid,fairlypaid,underpaidorseverelyunderpaid.”Thecontentoftherandomlygeneratedportions(includingallcomponentssetoffby“<>”intheexampleabove,apartfromoccupation)followedthedesigndescribedinTable1.Everyrespondentwasaskedsimilarquestionsoverafixedsetofeightoccupations,including:storeclerk,farmworker,receptionist,softwareengineer,manager,medicaldoctor,taxidriver,andschoolteacher.

Table1:Randomizedelementsoftheexperimentdesign

Dimension

Values

Sex

Male/Female

Age

25/35/45/55

Pay

KZT:(a)200,000;(b)300,000;(c)400,000;(d)500,000;(e)600,000KGS:(a)10,000;(b)20,000;(c)30,000;(d)40,000;(e)50,000.UZS:(a)2.5mln;(b)3.5mln;(c)4.5mln;(d)5.5mln;(e)6.5mln.

Asdemonstratedintable2,randomizationwassuccessfulacrossallassignedtreatments,aswellasforeachcountryindividually.Therewerenostatisticallysignificantdifferencesacrossanytreatmentarmsforkeyrespondentcharacteristicsincludinggender,(log)income,subjectivepovertystatusatthetimeofinterview,andrespondentage.Ineachcountry,womenwereover-representedamongrespondents(rangingfrom59percentofrespondentsinUzbekistanto70percentintheKyrgyzRepublic).Averagerespondentagerangedfrom43inKazakhstan,to48inUzbekistan.Theproposedpaylevelsweresetsuchthatcategory(b)wastheaveragewagereportedbytheofficialstatisticalauthorityineachcountry,while

6See

/en/country/uzbekistan/brief/l2cu

;and

/en/country/tajikistan/brief/listening2tajikistan.

8

option(a)wasaroundedincrementbelowthenationalaverage,while(c),(d),and(e)wereallvaluesabovethenationalaverage(intermsoffixedlocalcurrencyincrements).

Table2:Balanceofrespondentcharacteristicsacrossrandomlyassignedvignettes

AverageKazakhstanAverageKyrgyzRepublicAverageUzbekistan

VignetteLogSubj.LogSubj.LogSubj.

assignFemaleInc.poorAgeFemaleInc.poorAgeFemaleInc.poorAge

Woman0.6011.710.2243.680.709.300.2345.010.5813.920.1048.21

Man0.5911.720.2343.390.709.310.2344.960.5913.950.1048.16

Age250.5911.720.2343.430.709.300.2345.410.5913.950.1048.22

Age350.5911.710.2343.580.709.310.2345.040.5913.940.1048.07

Age450.6011.700.2343.840.709.320.2244.790.5813.920.1048.04

Age550.6011.730.2243.280.699.300.2244.700.5813.930.1048.42

Pay10.5911.690.2343.800.699.320.2245.110.5913.930.1047.99

Pay20.5911.730.2243.440.719.360.2344.940.5813.960.0948.14

Pay30.5911.720.2243.740.709.290.2244.810.5913.920.1048.40

Pay40.5911.720.2343.600.719.290.2245.040.5813.930.1048.19

Pay50.6111.710.2343.100.709.290.2345.020.5813.920.1148.24

Results

Theresultsrevealsystematicdifferencesinresponsesaboutthefairnessofrandomlyassignedwageamountsdependingonthesexoftheworkerdescribedinthevignette.Acrossthethreecountriesandalleightoccupationsbutwithoutcontrollingforothercharacteristics,womenwere17percentlesslikelytobedescribedas“severelyunderpaid,”and9percentlesslikelytobedescribedas“somewhatoverpaid.”Incontrast,theywere7percentmorelikelytobe“fairlypaid,”8percentmorelikelytobedescribedas“somewhatoverpaid,and13percentmorelikelytobedescribedas“severelyoverpaid”(Table3).Thesepatternsholdineachofthethreecountries,thoughwiththelargestabsolutediscrepancyinUzbekistan.

Table3:SummaryResponsebyGenderofVignetteSubject

Severelyoverpaid

Somewhat

overpaid

Underpaid

Fair

Severelyunderpaid

Total

Female

3.3%

11.4%

53.3%

19.0%

12.9%

Male

2.9%

10.6%

50.1%

21.0%

15.4%

%difference

13%

8%

7%

-9%

-17%

KyrgyzRepublic

Female

5.6%

10.1%

44.9%

17.8%

21.6%

Male

5.3%

9.4%

44.0%

18.0%

23.2%

%difference

5%

7%

2%

-1%

-7%

Kazakhstan

Female

4.0%

18.0%

54.5%

19.2%

4.3%

Male

3.1%

18.5%

52.3%

21.1%

5.1%

%difference

30%

-2%

4%

-9%

-16%

Uzbekistan

9

OrderedLogit

Female

Male

%difference

20.1%23.8%

-16%

12.2%17.3%

-30%

0.5%0.5%

16%

6.6%4.4%

51%

60.6%

54.0%

12%

Table4reportstheresultsofregressionsforwhichthedependentvariableisthecategoricalresponseoftherespondentregardingthefairnessofthewage(with“severelyoverpaid”codedas1,“overpaid”codedas2,“fairlypaid”codedas3,“underpaid”codedas4,and“severelyunderpaid”codedas5).Columns1-3oftable4usesimpleOLSregression,withstandarderrorsclusteredatthehouseholdlevel.Thepositiveandstatisticallysignificantcoefficientfor“male”signifiesthatcomparedtothebasecategory“female,”randomlyassigningamalesubjectinthevignetteincreasesthelikelihoodtherespondentwillsaythesubjectis“underpaid”