世界经济论坛-数字司法之路（英）-2021.9-36正式版

PathwaystoDigitalJusticeWHITEPAPERSEPTEMBER2021每日免费获取报告1、每日微信群内分享7+最新重磅报告；2、每日分享当日华尔街日报、金融时报；3、每周分享经济学人4、行研报告均为公开版，权利归原作者所有，起点财经仅分发做内部学习。扫一扫二维码关注公号回复：研究报告加入“起点财经”微信群。。Images:GettyImagesContentsPreface34AnotefromtheGlobalFutureCouncilonDataPolicyCo-ChairsExecutivesummary5Part1:Wehaveaproblem7Part2:Whatisdigitalinjustice?9Part3:CurrentlegalandjudicialsystemsarefragmentedAInadequateprivacy-basedprotectionsBLimitedlegalsolutionsthatarenolongerfitforpurposeCLackoffairprocessinautomateddecision-makingPart4:RecommendedpathwaystodigitaljusticeAIncreasesystems’capacitytoadjudicatemoreclaimsBCreateavictimresourceguideConclusion111213151717212324253032DigitaljusticetipsheetDeepfakes:AvictimresourceguideContributorsEndnotesDisclaimerThispaperhasbeenwrittenbytheWorldEconomicForumGlobalFutureCouncilonDataPolicy,AIforHumanityandMedia,EntertainmentandSport.Thefindings,interpretationsandconclusionsexpressedhereinarearesultofacollaborativeprocessfacilitatedandendorsedbytheWorldEconomicForum,butwhoseresultsdonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheWorldEconomicForum,northeentiretyofitsMembers,Partnersorotherstakeholders,northeindividualGlobalFutureCouncilmemberslistedascontributors,ortheirorganizations.©2021WorldEconomicForum.Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,includingphotocopyingandrecording,orbyanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem.PathwaystoDigitalJustice2September2021PathwaystoDigitalJusticePrefaceTheWorldEconomicForum’sGlobalFutureCouncilonDataPolicyliaisedwiththeGlobalFutureCouncilonMedia,EntertainmentandSportandtheGlobalFutureCouncilonAIforHumanity,incollaborationwithanadvisorycommitteeconsistingofexpertsfromaroundtheworld,tomakethecasethatanewpolicyframeworkisneededtoeffectivelyaddressissuesofjusticethatariseinarangeofdigitalcontexts.Indoingso,thehopeisthatlegalandjudicialsystemscanthenevolvetoembedredressmechanismswhichenablethecreationofadataecosystemthatprotectsindividualsandisaccountabletothem.Itiscriticaltonotethatwithrespecttodata-drivenandpredictivetechnology,theaimisnottoclaimthattechnologyitselfisthesolesourceofharm,orthatregulatingtechnologyistheonlyviablesolution.Technologywillcontinuetoadvance,andindeedwillhavethepotentialtobringpositivebenefitstosociety.Thisreportscallsattentiontotheinadequacyoflegalandjudicialsystems,aswellasthequasi-legalandjudicialsystemsthatplatformsoffer,toaddressthetypesofharmsthatarisefromthesetechnologies.SheilaWarrenDeputyHead,CentrefortheFourthIndustrialRevolution;MemberoftheExecutiveCommittee,WorldTheWorldEconomicForum’snetworkofGlobalFutureCouncilsistheworld’sforemostmultistakeholderandinterdisciplinaryknowledgenetworkdedicatedtopromotinginnovativethinkingandstrategicinsightstoshapeamoreresilient,inclusiveandsustainablefuture.Thenetworkconvenesmorethan1,000ofthemostrelevantandknowledgeablethoughtleadersfromacademia,government,internationalorganizations,businessandcivilsociety.EconomicForumInusingthiswhitepapertoguidepolicyeffortstowardscombatingdata-drivenharms,governmentsacrosstheglobecanfeelconfidentthattheproposalsarefitforpurposeforourcurrentdigitalera,aretrauma-informedandvictim-focused.We1anticipatethatthiswhitepaper,inconjunctionwiththecomplementarytipsheetandresourceguide,willserveasinstructive,inclusiveandbeneficialresourcesforanygovernmentaddressingthenextgenerationoftechnology-enabledharms.EvînCheikosmanPolicyAnalyst,CryptoImpactandSustainabilityAccelerator(CISA);Manager,GlobalFutureCouncilonDataPolicy,WorldEconomicForumSinaFazelpourAssistantProfessorofPhilosophyandComputerScience,DepartmentofPhilosophyandReligionandtheKhouryCollegeofComputerSciences,NortheasternUniversityPathwaystoDigitalJustice3AnotefromtheGlobalFutureCouncilonDataPolicyCo-ChairsMarietjeSchaakeJoAnnStonierChiefDataOfficer,MastercardDirector,InternationalPolicy,CyberPolicyCenter,StanfordUniversityTheoutbreakofCOVID-19hashighlightedtheglobaldependenceondigitaltechnologiesandnetworksforeconomic,health,educational,culturalandscientificendeavours.Thatreliancehasalsocreatednewvulnerabilitiesfordatatobeweaponizedtospreadmisinformationanddisinformationandcreatesocietaldivides.Data-driventechnologiescreatenewinjusticesandareagrowingsourceofpersonalandcommunityharm.Meanwhile,accessingpathwaystoHowever,justiceandredressinlightofnewtypesofharmneedbettercorrespondingregulatoryandjudicialprotections.Judicialandregulatorysystemsalsoneedtoevolvetoprotecttherightsofindividuals,communitiesandecosystemsasourdatanormsandvaluescontinuetomatureanddataethicsarebetterdefined.Thereisanaccountabilitygaprelatedtotheriseofdigitalharms,whichisenablingadataecosysteminwhichbadactorsarefreetobehavewithimpunity.Theregulatoryresponsetosuchbehaviourisinsufficient,leadingtoasecondaryproblem:thatvictimsofdigitalharmlackaclearpathwaytojustice.justiceandredressintoday’sdigitalsocietyisdifficultandnearimpossibleinsomecases.Lawmakersinvariousjurisdictionshavetriedtoaddresssomeoftheissuesofdigitalharmrelatedtodemocracy,publichealthanddataprivacy.FIGURE1WeneedtoacknowledgetheaccountabilitygapwithregardtodigitalharmGovernmentsmustclosethegapVictimofPathwaysdigitalharmtodigitaljusticeTheaimofthiswhitepaperistoelevatetheurgencyofcreatingdataecosystemsthatreduceharmandthat,mostimportantly,areaccountabletopeople.Governmentsandotherstakeholdersacrosstheglobewhowishtocombatinjusticesandharmstotheircitizensareinvitedtousethiswhitepapertostarttheirworkindefiningthecoreelementsofeffectivepoliciestowardsdigitaljustice.Asco-chairs,wethankourfellowGlobalFutureCouncilonDataPolicymembers,thelargerprojectcommunityandthestaffattheWorldEconomicForumfortheircontributionstothiswhitepaperonPathwaystoDigitalJustice.Wehopethatlaw-andpolicy-makersfindthedata,insightsandrecommendationshelpful,andwelookforwardtofeedbackandcontinuedengagementaboutthisimportanttopic.PathwaystoDigitalJustice4ExecutivesummaryThispaperprovidestwoapproachestocreatingclearpathwaystodigitaljusticethatgovernmentscantake.FIGURE2SummaryoftheoverallshiftsthatneedtobemadeWhatisn’tworkingwhatneedstohappen:1.Norecourseforvictimsclearrecourseforvictims2.Completelackofsupportandawareness3.“Problemofmanyhands”,onlineanonymity,noresponsibility4.Burdenisonvictimstofigureouttheirownroutevictimshaveclearstepstonavigatejusticeprocesstrauma-informedandvictim-centredsupportclearaccountability5.Governmentsandstakeholdersarenottakingeffective,cohesiveactiongovernmentsdevelopnewmultistakeholderwaystomodernizeaccesstojustice6.Treatingdigitalharmasamatterexclusivetoprivacytreatingdigitalharmasahumanrightsviolationthatencompassesallformsofpersonhoodandself-determination7.Fragmentedandconfusingjurisdictionalapproachtopersonaldataprotectionmodern,flexibledata-privacystandardthatfacilitatesinternationaltradewhilesafeguardinghumanrightsMaliciousactorsspreadinformation(trueaswellasfalse)notmerelytonegotiateandasserttheirownsocietalvaluesbutalsototargetandharmotherindividualsandgroups.Fromdoingbusinesstostayinginformedofthenews,werelyonaccesstoinformation24/7.Butwhathappenswhenthatinformationtargetsusinanunjustmannerwithreal-lifeconsequences?Weoftenrefertodisinformationasapoliticalphenomenon,butitisbecomingincreasinglymorepersonalized.Maliciousactorsspreadinformation(trueaswellasfalse)notmerelytonegotiateandasserttheirownsocietalvaluesbutalsototargetandharmotherindividualsandgroups.Andtheplatformsandtechnologiesuponwhichweincreasinglydependoftenservetoamplifysuchharms.judicialsystemswithregardtodigitaljusticeissues;and(3)recommendedpathwaystodigitaljusticethatlawmakerscandeveloptobetterprotectindividualsandcommunities.Part1ofthiswhitepaperexploresthemyriadoftechnology-enabledharms,whethertheyemergefromthemisuseofrealinformationordeepfakevideos,andhowtheseharmsareexacerbatedbytechnologyrangingfromrecommendationalgorithmstoarmiesofbotsusedtomanipulatethem.Part2contextualizesthenotionofdigitalinjusticeasamatterofcorrectivejustice,whichisawaytoattainredressforpastactions.Inparticular,correctivejusticeisidealforresolvingthetypesofunpredictableharmthattendtocomefromdata-drivenandpredictivetechnologies.ForTheoverallobjectivesofthiswhitepaperaretoprovidegovernmentswith:(1)aholisticperspectiveoftheharmsthatdata-driventechnologiesperpetuate:(2)keyfailuresingloballegaland2PathwaystoDigitalJustice5example,correctiveinjusticesoccurwhenwelackthenecessarycapabilitiestodetectharms,whenthereisnoaccountabilityorwhentherearenoeffectivepathwaysforredress.Thewhitepaperconcludeswithtwomultistakeholderapproachestocreatingclearpathwaystodigitaljusticethatgovernmentscantake.Itunderscoresthepressingneedsto:(1)modernizethejudicialsystem’scapacitytoadjudicatemoreclaims;and(2)equipsurvivorswithtimely,feasiblestepstonavigatethejusticeprocessintheeventofsomeformofharm.Part3addressesthethreemainreasonswhyjusticeishardtoachieve.Duetoourfragmentedandunder-resourcedlegalandjudicialsystems,andthejurisdictionalchallengesofregulatinginternationalcommunicationsplatforms,technology-enabledharmshavebeenabletoflourishinanenvironmentthatdefaultstoinadequateprivacy-basedprotections,limitedlegalsolutionsandalackoffairprocessinautomateddecision-making.Weareproudtopresentthiswhitepapertoyouinthespiritofsharedprogresstowardsanaccessible,trauma-informedandvictim-focusedpathwaytodigitaljustice.FIGURE3TheoryofchangeClearpathwaytodigitaljusticeforvictimsofdigitalharmTreatdigitalprotectionasahumanrightGovernmentclosingaccountabilitygapBlueprintforgovernmentsApproachCorrectivejusticePrioritize1.2.IncreasesystemcapacityEquipsurvivorswithtimely,feasiblestepstonavigatethejusticeprocessAddress1.2.3.Lackoffairprocessinautomateddecision-makingInadequateprivacy-basedprotectionsPathwaystoDigitalJustice6WehaveaproblemPart1Incasesofdigitalharm,whatoftenseemlikeviolationsofprivacyareinfactviolationsofself-determinationandpersonhood.WehaveaAvaRose,TikTokerwhoexperiencedcyberbullyingmostvulnerable,aswellasensurethatvictimshavefeasiblepathwaystojustice?problemonourhandsasasociety.Eventhoughweareincreasinglyengagingmorewithtechnology,thepathwaysRanaAyyub,investigativejournalistandwriterwhoexperienceddeepfakepornographyAninvestigationintodigitaladvertisingrevealedthatcompaniespossess75,000individualdatapointsabouttheaverageUSconsumer.10Thisdataiscollected,soldandmonetizedbyprivatefirms,includingtechnologygiantsApple,Amazon,Facebook,GoogleandMicrosoft,tofeedmarketingeffortsandcreatenewproductsandservices.Thatistosaythatpersonaldata11keepsthedataeconomygoingandgrowing.Infact,asof2018,thedataeconomyhadacombinedmarketvaluationofnearly$4trillion.12Gibi,ASMRYouTuberwhoexperienceddeepfakes,onlineharassmentandnon-consensualpornographytoprotectusRobertJulian-BorchakWilliams,wrongfullyaccusedbyanalgorithmofacrimefromtheharmsthatcomefromthoseexchangesdonotexist.Thesearethenamesofvictimsoftechnology-3enabledharmswhohavegonepublicwiththeirstories.Foreveryvictimwhohaspubliclysharedtheirstory,therearemanywhohaveremainedsilent.Thequantityandavailabilityofone’spersonaldatathatisavailableacrossthedataecosystemisbecomingincreasinglysusceptibletoavarietyofmisuses,whichartificialintelligence-driven(AI)systemsfurtheramplify.Theseincludeintentionalmisuseofinformation,suchasdefamation,13misrepresentationorinflictionofemotionaldistress,14aswellasdata-drivendiscrimination(thelimitationsofsuchactionsarediscussedinPart3below).Whendecisionsaremadebyalgorithms,thelikelihoodandimpactofbiasedorerroneousresultscanbesignificant.Wehaveaproblemonourhandsasasociety.Eventhoughweareincreasinglyengagingmorewithtechnology,thepathwaystoprotectusfromtheharmsthatcomefromthoseexchangesdonotexist.Inonecase,anAmericanYouTuberandASMRartist,Gibi,hasbeenrepeatedlytargetedbydeepfakesandonlineharassment.Thisissue4becamesobadthatshehadtochangehername,moveoutofherhomeandbeextremelyvigilantwhenrevealinganypotentiallyidentifyinginformationaboutherself.Shehassincediscoveredseveralonlinebusinessesinwhichothersareprofitingfromsellingherimagewithoutherconsentindeepfakesandotherfake,oftenpornographic,material.ShehasevenbeenapproachedbyacompanyofferingTaketheissueoffacialrecognitionasanexample.AccordingtorecentfindingsconductedbyresearchersJoyBuolamwiniandTimnitGebru,leadingfacialrecognitionsoftwarepackagesperformedmuchworseatidentifyingwomenandpeopleofcolourthanwhenclassifyingmale,whitefaces.15The2020caseofRobertJulian-BorchakWilliamsisthefirstdocumentedexampleintheUSofsomeonebeingwrongfullyarrestedbasedonafalsehitproducedbyfacialrecognitiontechnology.WhatmakesWilliams’caseparticularlyimportantisthatthenDetroitpolicechiefJamesCraigacknowledgedthatthesoftware,ifusedbyitself,wouldmisidentifycases96%ofthetime.16toremovethedeepfakesofher,at$700avideo.5Gibiisfarfromalone:accordingto2019researchfromSensity.ai,ofthe85,000deepfakescirculatingonline,96%arepornographic,withover99%ofthosepornographicdeepfakesbeingofwomen.6TheseharmsButvictimsofdeepfakesandotherformsofonline7haveaprofoundnegativeimpactonone’spersonhood.harassmentlackmeaningfulwaystoobtainjustice.Ina2020surveythatcapturedtheonlineexperiencesof484womenandnon-binaryindividualsintheUKduringthepandemic,GlitchUKandtheEndViolenceAgainstWomenCoalitionfoundthat83%ofrespondentswhoreportedoneorseveralincidentsofonlineabusefelttheircomplaint(s)hadnotbeenproperlyaddressed.Thisproportionincreasedto94%Theseharmshaveaprofoundnegativeimpactonone’spersonhood.“Personhood”isusedinthetraditionalworldtomeanrecognitionofanindividualorentityashavingstatusasaperson.17Inthecontextofthispaper,thisdefinitionisextendedtocoveraperson’sstatusinthedigitalworld,aswell.Itiscriticaltoclarifyhere,however,thatinthecontextforBlackandminoritywomenandnon-binarypeople.8Whatdoesitsayaboutourdigitalhumanity9whenweareunabletoprotectminorities,womenandthePathwaystoDigitalJustice7Whathappensinthedigitalworldextendstothephysicalworld,andwhatoftenseemlikeviolationsofprivacyareinfactviolationsofself-determinationandpersonhood.ofunderstandingdigitalharm,itisnotusefultodrawfalsebinariesbetweena“physical”selfanda“digital”self.Atechnology-enabledharmmayoccuronline,buttheresultingharmspersistregardlessofdigitalandphysicalborders,andthusdonotchangethestatusonestillhasasaperson.18Followingonfromthepreviousexampleregardingfacialrecognitionsoftware,themisuseofthistechnologybylawenforcementacrosstheUnitedStateshasledtoseveralcasesofBlackmenbeingfalselyaccusedofcrimesthattheydidnotcommit.Thesefalseaccusationsaren’tjustaninvasionofthefalselyaccusedindividual’sprivacy,theyarealsoaninvasionoftheirself-determinationandpersonhood,affectingtheirlivelihoodandpoliticalrights.20Discussionsaboutdigitalrightsareoftenlimitedtotherightstoprivacy,dataprotectionandfreedomofexpression.Theprotectionoftheserightsisindeedparticularlyrelevantbecause,throughtheuseofdigitaltools,somanyaspectsofourlivesarebeingtracked,ourpersonalinformationisbeingcollected,usedanddisclosedonamassivescale,digitalidentitiesarebeingcreated,theuseofsurveillancetechnologiesisspreadingandonlineviolenceandharassmentareincreasing.Buttheuseofdigitaltechnologyhasanincreasingimpactonallhumanrights.Toolsusedtomonitorprotestsandworkers’unionsaffectpeople’sfreedomofassembly;algorithmsdeployedwiththeaimofpredictingandinfluencingpeople’sbehaviouraffecttheirfreedomofthought;otherautomatedsystemsreinforceexistingracialorsocialbiases,thusinstitutionalizingdiscriminationandotherharms.Protectingdigitalrightsmustthusencompassallformsofself-determinationandpersonhood.Protectingandreputation.19Whathappensinthedigitalworldextendstothephysicalworld,andwhatoftenseemlikeviolationsofprivacyareinfactviolationsofself-determinationandpersonhood.digitalrightsmustthusencompassallformsofself-determinationandpersonhood.Securingtheprotectionofself-determinationandpersonhoodinvolvesacknowledgingthatdigitalrightsrefertotheapplicationofall

humanrightsandshouldnotbelimitedtoanumberofcivilPathwaystoDigitalJustice8Whatisdigitalinjustice?Part2Theprimaryfocusinthissectionisonjusticeinrelationtoredressandcorrection.Ingeneral,digitaljustice,inthecorrectivesense,concernstherectificationofpastwrongs–thatis,harmsthathavealreadybeendonetoanindividualoragroup.Often,suchcorrectioniscarriedoutbyimposingacorrelativeliabilityontheresponsiblewrongdoer.againstthem(e.g.byenhancingprivacyorfairnessbydesign)lackimportance.Correctiveinjusticesoccur,forexample,whentheextentofharmsisunderappreciatedortheygofullyunnoticed,whenthereisnoaccountabilityorwhentherearenoeffectivepathwaysforredressingharmstoindividualsorgroups.Inaddition,providingindividualswiththemeansofrecourseandredressalsosupportsotherimportantsocialvalues.Forexample,researchershavehighlightedtheimportanceofdueprocess26andcorrectivejustice27inrelationtothevaluesofrationalityandaccountability.Thatis,thesemechanismsenableindividualstoplanrationallyfortheirlives,knowingtheywillbeprotectedagainstunanticipatedexternalinterferencesandthatpotentialwrongdoerswillbeheldaccountable.Correctiveinjusticesoccur,forexample,whentheextentofharmsisunderappreciatedortheygofullyunnoticed,whenthereisnoaccountabilityorwhentherearenoeffectivepathwaysforredressingharmstoindividualsorgroups.Correctivejusticecanbeusedforvariouspurposes,includingexploitationandinflictionofreputationalharm.ArecentdevelopmentintheareaofWhatisneededinconjunctionwithproactiveefforts,therefore,isthedevelopmentofarobustframeworkforrecourseandcorrectivejusticethatcansupportretroactiveidentificationofharms,allocateresponsibilityandofferequitablepathwaysofredress.Doingso,however,requiresaddressinganumberofcriticalchallenges.deepfakesistheemergenceofanewandfarmoreadvanced“nudifying”websitethatusesdeep-learningalgorithmstostripwomen’sclothesoffinphotoswithouttheirconsent.Anonymoususerscanuploadaphotoofafullyclothedwomanoftheirchoice,andinseconds,thesiteundressesthemforfree.Duetothatonefeature,ithasamassedmorethan38millionhitssincethestartof2021andhasbecomeoneofthemostpopulardeepfaketoolsevercreated.21Photosandlinksfromthisnewwebsitearen’tconfinedtothedarkweb,norhasitbeendelistedfromGoogle’ssearchengineindex.ItoperatesfreeofanyconstraintsandhassincespreadacrossmajorplatformssuchasTwitter,FacebookandReddit,tonamebutafew.22Victimsofnon-consensualpornography23areforcedtograpplewiththeconsequencesoftheseimages,losingtheirjobs,relationshipsandmore.Itnolongermattersifthiscontentisrealornot–theycreateanewrealityinwhichthevictimmustlive.24Onechallengepertainstocharacterizingpotentiallynewtypesofharmthatmightbecausedbydata-driventechnologies.Take,forexample,thewaysinwhichAIsystemsundermineLGBTQI+28identity.Theuseofautomatedgenderrecognition(AGR)technologieshasbeenshowntoremoveanindividual’sopportunitytoself-identify,andinsteadinferstheirgenderfromdatathatiscollectedaboutthem.Thistechnologyusesdatasuchastheperson’slegalname,whetherornottheywearmake-uportheshapeofaperson’sjawlineorcheekbonestoreduceanindividual’sgenderidentitytoasimplisticbinary.29Thisrepresentsaformoferasureforpeoplewhoaretransornon-binarythat,ineffect,hasdirereal-worldconsequences.Whenanindividualandtheirrespectivecommunityisnotrepresented,theylosetheabilitytoadvocateeffectivelyfortheirfundamentalhumanrightsandfreedoms.Misgenderingisparticularlyharmfulduetothesensitivenatureofgenderdysphoria,andAGRsystemsfurtherexacerbatetheemotionaldistressassociatedwithanindividual’sexperiencewiththeirgenderedbodyorsocialexperiences.30Elsewhere,data-driventechnologiescanhaveanindirect,butstillcritical,impact.TheinfluenceofrecommendationalgorithmsonshapingHowever,giventhecriticalknowledgegapsandthedegreeofuncertaintysurroundingthelackofaccountabilityinvolved,itisnecessarytoacknowledgethateventhebestattemptstoaddresstheseharmsinadvancemayfallshort.Inlightofthesepotentialharms,providingindividualswithrobustpathwaystorecourseandredressshouldbevitalaspectsofhoworganizationsandgovernmentscontendwiththeethicsandgovernanceofdata-driventechnologies.Thisattentiontoretroactivecorrectiondoesnotmeanthateffortstoanticipatepotentialharms(e.g.viaforesightmethods)25anddeviseproactiveguardsPathwaystoDigitalJustice9connectivityinsocialmediaisanexampleofthisindirectrole.Here,thepatternsofsocialconnectionenabledbyalgorithmscanrestrictaccesstoopportunities(e.g.nothearingaboutajobopeningviaone’ssocialnetwork).31algorithmmakesorrecommendsadecisionremaininscrutabletohumans,includingtheusersanddevelopersofthealgorithm.33Thislackoftransparencyposesachallengetotheidentificationofpotentialharms.Thesituationisexacerbatedbythefactthatmanyofthetechnicalapproachesusedtomakesuchalgorithmsinterpretableremainfragile34andunreliable,particularlyinwaysthatcanunhelpfullyconcealdiscriminatorydecisions,35orelseinsufficientlygroundedinparticularaims(e.g.recourse)forwhichinterpretabilityissought.Anotherchallengestemsfromthefactthatmostmoralandlegalframeworksdependonclearlyidentifyingtheresponsiblewrongdoer,whoischargedwithrestoringthevictim’sdignityandreputationinsomewayorcompensatingthevictimfortheharm.Yet,inmanycasesinvolvingdata-drivenandpredictiveanalytics,suchallocationsofresponsibilityarecomplicatedbyonlineanonymity,thelargenumberofactorsinvolvedintheprocessandtheso-called“problemofmanyhands”.32Furthermore,evenwhenthereisaclearentitytowhichonecouldattachresponsibilityandblame,establishingthefactanddegreeofharm–evenretroactively–canbechallenging.Thedifficultyhereismostsalientincasesofalgorithmicopacity–thatis,caseswherethegroundsonwhichapredictiveFinally,evenifweconceivablypossessedthetechnicalmeansto(retroactively)identifyharms,theexistingpracticalroadblockstoredressneedtobeconsidered.Suchroadblocksmightincludeimposinganundueburdenonvictimsinprovidingevidenceofharm,whichisparticularlytroublesomewhentheinstitutionsaccusedoftheharmaregatekeeperstothisevidence,thusamplifyingexistinginequitiesandpowerasymmetries.36PathwaystoDigitalJustice10CurrentlegalandjudicialsystemsarefragmentedPart3Emergingtechnologiesposeprominentlegalandjudicialchallenges.Thevalueofdigitaltoolsforhumanrightsanddevelopmentisenormous.Theycanhelppeoplecommunicatesecurelyaroundtheglobethankstoend-to-endencryptionandsupportpeoplebyincreasingtheiraccesstoinformationandknowledge.Butpromotingandprotectingdigitalrights–whichmustbeatthecentreofstates’strategiesforasustainabledigitaltransformation–requiresnotonlyencouraginginnovationandtechnologicaldevelopmentbutalsopreventingharmsarisingfromnewwaysofcommunicatingandanalysingdata.Yetsofartheprotectionofhumanrights–bothofflineandonline–iscriticallylackingintermsofapplicationandimplementationbygovernmentsworldwide.37Emergingtechnologiesposeprominentlegalandjudicialchallenges,inparticular:howtoincorporateresponsibleuseofnewdata-driveninnovationsintoprotectionsthatencompassrightsbeyondjustdataprivacy;38howtoreplaceoutdatedlegalcodeswithframeworksthatarefitforpurposeinthecurrentdigitalera;andhowtoaddressthelackoffairprocessinautomateddecision-makingwithinthecontextofjusticesystems.FIGURE4Thethreemainobstaclestodigitaljustice1.2.3.Lackoffairprocessinautomateddecision-makingInadequateprivacy-basedprotectionsLimitedlegalsolutionsPathwaystoDigitalJustice11Fortheseharmstobeaddressed,statesmustnotonlyrecognizeandprotecttheapplicationofhumanrightsthroughbindingf