博士生入学考试英语试题

博士生入学考试英语试题及答案PartDirections:Choosethebestanswer(fromA,B,CandD)tocompleteeachofthefollowingsentences.MarkyourchoicewithasinglebaracrossthesquarebracketsonyourMachine-scoringAnswerSheet.1.Tomdoesn'tthinkthatthesituationhereisasgoodashishometown's.A.economicsB.economicC.economyD.economical2.theincreaseinthenumberofcomputersinouroffices,theamountofpaperLhatweneedhasrisenaswell.A.AlongwithB.AltogetherC.AlthoughD.Allalong3.Thefoodwasdivided__accordingtotheageandsizeofthechild.A.equallyB.individuallyC.sufficienfiyD.proportionallycommurllCatt.rt4.Ournewfirmforacredible,aggressiveindividualwith.greats~!Istofillthisposition.:A..havelookedB.arelookingC.islookingD.look5.Plasticbagsareusefulforholdingmanykindsoffood,theirc!ea-mess,toughnessandlowcost.A.byvirtueofB.inadditiontoC.forthesakeofD.asopposedto6:He___hinzseLfbitterlyforhismiserablebehaviorthatevening.A..repealedB.resentedC.replayedD.reproached7.Manyof~efadsofthe1970sastoday'slatestfashions.A.arebeingrevivedB.isrevisedC.arerevoked.D.isbeingreviled8.AlloftheinternationaldelegatesattendingtheconferencetobringasouvenirfromtheirowncountriesA.hasaskedB,!askingC.wereaskedD.wasasking9.BritainhopesofagoldmedalintheOlympicGamessuffered.....yesterday,whenHunterfailedtoqualifyduringpreliminarysession.A.asevereset-backB.sharpset-backC.ssevereblown-upD.sharpblown-up10.Ifyouwanttodowellontheexam,youonthedirectionsthattheprofessorgivesandtakeexactnotes.A.willhaveconcentratedB.havetoconcentrateC.willbeconcentratedD.willbeconcentrating11.What____aboutthatarticleinthenewspaperwasthatitswritershowedanattitudecoolenough,professionalenoughand,therefore,creelenoughwhenfacingthattragedy.A.workedmeoutB.knockedmeoutC.broughtmeupD.putmeforward12.Sincehisinjurywasserious,thedoctorsuggestedthatheinthegame.A,didnotplayB,mustnotplayC.notplayD.nottoplay13.Accordingtothelatestreport,consumerc0nfidenceabreathtaking15pointslastmonth,toitslowestlevelintenyearsA.soared:B.mutatedC~plummeted:D.fluctuated'14.OurcartrunkwithsuitcasesandwecouldhardlymakeroomforanythingA.wentcrammingB.wascrammedC.iscrammingD.wasbeencrammed15.Thesecretarydidn'tknowwhohewas,orshehimmorepolitely.A,willbetreatingB.wouldhavetreatedC.wastreatingD.wouldhavebeentreated~16.Theinstructionsonhowtousethenew:machinethatnobodyseemedtobeabletounderstand.;simpliA.werevsficB,wasveryconfusedC.weresoconfusingD.wassosimplistic..i....17.Johnplayedbasketballincollege:and....activeeversince.A.haveextremelybeenB.hasbeenextremelyC.willbeextremely'D:shouldextremelybe18.Theofthespringwaterattractsalot:ofvisitorsfromalloverthecountry,A.clashB.clarifyC.clarityD.clatter19.__thegiftinbeautifulgreenpaper,Sarahdepartedfortheparty.A.HavingwrappedB.TowrapC.WrapD.Wrapping20.TheadvertisementforSuperSudsdetergentthatthesale'hasincreasedby25%inthefirstquarteroftheyear.,A.havebeensosuccessfulB.hadbeensosuccessfulC.hasbeensosuccessfulD.willbesosuccessful21.TomandAlicehavinganewcartoreplacetheiroldoneforyear's.A.hasbeendreamingofB.havebeendreamingofC.has&'eamedD.willhavedreamed22.Whentheairinacertainspaceissqueezedtooccupyasmallerspace,theairissaidtobeA.commencedB.compressedC.compromisedD.compensated23.theheavypollution,thecityofficialshavedecidedtocancelschoolfortheday..A.:PriorB.Bymeansof24.Ourbossistakingeveryonetotheballettonight,andIneedtomakesuremynewdressfortheoccasion.A.hasbeencleanedB.shouldhavebeenCleanedC.isbeingcleanedD.hasbeencleaning25.errysmotherkepttellinghimthatinthestreetisdangerous,buthewouldnotlisten.A.played'B.willplayC.playingD.beenplaying26.Aknowledgeofhistoryustodealwiththevastrangeofproblemsconfrontingthecontemporaryworld.A.equipsB.providesC.offers'D.satisfies27.Hewouldn'teventhinkofwearing'clothes;theynakehimlooksoold!A.sameB.despiteC.suchD.that.28.Maryfinaltydecidedallthejunkshehadkeptinthegarage.A.getridB.gottenridofC.gettingridofD.togetridof29.TheteamleaderofmountainclimbersmarkedoutA.thatseemedtobethebestrouteB.whatseemedtobethebestrouteC.whichseemedtobetilebestrouteD.somethingthattobethebestroute30.TomJones,whoaroundtheworld,willcometoAsianextmonth.A.willbetouringB.havetouredC.hadbeentouringD.hasbeentouring31.Thepaintontheclown'sfacethatitscaredthechildrenhewastryingtoentertain.A.wassoexaggerationB.wereanexaggerationC.wassuchanexaggerationD.wasexaggerating32.Menoftenwaitlongertogethelpformedicalproblemsthanwomen,andwomenliveaboutsixyearslongerthanmenonanaverage.A.insteadofB.constantlyC.consequentlyD.because33.The.emphasisonexamsisbyfartheworstformofcompetitioninschools.A.negligentB.edibleC.fabulousD.disproportionate34.Thereisconflictinginformationonhowmuchironwomenneedintheirdiet.A.somuch.B.somanyC,toofewD:afew35.Itmustguaranteefreedomofexpression,totheendthatalltotheflowofideasshallberemoved.A.propheciesB.transactionsC.argumentsD.hindrances36.Notuntilthe1980sinBeijingstarttofindwaystopreservehistoricbuildingsfromdestruction.A.someconcernedcitizensB.someconcerningcitizensC.didsomeconcenfmgcitizensD.didsomeconcernedcitizens37.Afterfailinghismid-termexams,Jeremywasfacehisparents.A.tooashamedtoB.tooembarrassingtoC.veryashamedof.....::D.veryembarrassingto38.Mygrandmotherhasbeengoingtoabetterdentist,sothisproblemssheishavingwithherdentures.A.won'teliminateB.willbeeliminationC.shouldhavebeeneliminatedD.shouldhelpeliminate39.Hetoldastoryabouthissisterwhowasinasadwhenshewasillandhadnomoney.A.plightB.polarizationC.plagueD.pigment40.Duringhertwo-weekstayinBeijing,ElizabethneverachrometopracticeherChinese.A.passedbyB.passedon~C.passedoutD.passedupPartII.ReadingComprehension(30%)Directions:Readthefollowingpa~sagesandthenchoosethebestanswer(fromA,B,CandD)tocompleteeachofthefollowingsentences.MarkyourchoicewithasinglebaracrossthesquarebracketsonyourMachine-scoringAnswerSheet.Passage1Britishfoodhasagoodreputation,butEnglishcookinghasabadone.Irisdifficulttoexplainthere'onforthis.Unformnately,however;superbrawingredientsareoftenminedhthekitchens0that:theycometothetablewithoutanyoftheh'naturalflavorandgoodness.ThisbadreputationdiscouragesalotofpeoplefromeatinginanEnglishrestaurant.Iftheydogotoone:theyateusuryfullofprejudiceagainstthefood.Ksisapity,because:thereare::excellentcookS'inEngland,exCellentrestaurants,andexcellenthome-cooking.How,then;hasthebadreputauonbeenbuiltup.PerhapsonereasoniSthatBfitain'sInduStrialRevolutionoccurredveryearly,intherrdddleofthenineteenthcentury.Asaresult,thequalityoffoodchangedtoo.This(wasbecauseBritainstoppedbeingalargelyagriculturalcountry.Thepopulationofthetownsincreasedenormouslybetween1840and1.870,and_peoplecouldnolongergrow.theirownfood,orbuyitfreshfromafarm.Hugequantitiesoffoodhadtobetakentothetowns,andalotofitlostitsfreshnessontheway.Thislackoffreshnesswasdisguisedby"dressingup"thefood.Therichmiddleclassesatelong;elaboratemealswhichwerecookedforthembyFrenchchefs.Frenchbecame,andhasremained,theofficiallanguageofthediningroom.Out-of-seasondelicacieswereservedinspiteoftheirexpense,'forthere,werealargenumber'ofextremelywealthypeoplewhowantedtoestablishthemselvessocially.The"look"ofthefoodwasmoreimportantthanitstaste.Inthe1930s,thesupplyofservafftSbegantodecrease.Peoplestilltriedtoproducecomplicateddishes,however,buttheyeconomizedonthepreparationtime.TheSecondorldWarmadethingsevenworsebymakingrawingredientsextremelyscarce.Asaresult,thereweremanywomenwhoneverhadtheopportunitytochooseapieceofmeatfromawell-stockedbutcher'sshop,butwerecontentandgratefultoacceptanythingthatwasofferedtothem.FoodrationingcontinuedinBritainuntiltheearly1950s.Itwasonlyafterthishadstopped,andbutter,eggsandcreambecamemoreplentiful,anditwaspossibletotravel'P'eabroadagainandtasteotherwaysofpreparingfood,thattheEnglishmd~fferenctoeatingbecamereplacedbyanewenthusiasmforit.41Accordingtotheauthor,itisdifficulttoexplain.~A.whyexcellentingredientsarespoiledintheprocessofcooking-B.whypeopledonotlikeEnglishcookingC.whyBritishfoodoftenhasanaturalflavorD.whypeoplepreferhome-cookingtoreadymadefood42.ThenegativeeffectofBritain'sIndustrialRevolutiononEnglishcookingisthatA.thepopulationinthecountrysidedecreaseddramaticallyB.peoplenolongergrewtheirownfoodontheirownfarmsC.thefreshnessoffoodwaslostonthewaytothecitiesD.BritainwasnolongeranagnSculmralcountry43AsaresultoftheIndustrialRevolution,A.moreattentionwasgiventothelookofthefood....B.Frenchbecametheofficiallanguage.inEnglishrestaurantsC.alargenumberofextremelywealthypeopleateinFrenchrestaurantsD.out-of-seasondelicaciesbecameveryexpensive44.TheSecondWorld'Wm'worsenedtheproblembecauseA.therewasanincreasingdemandf6rserv-antsB.therewasalackofrawingredientsupplyC.manywomenrefusedtochoosemeatfrombutcher'sshopsD.FrenchchefsdominatedEnglishrestaurants45.AnewenthusiasmforeatingemergedinBritainA.whenmanywomenfmaUyhadtheopportunitytopurchasefreshmeatfromaiwell-stockedbutcher'sshop.B.whenbutter,eggsandcreambecameavailableC.whenpeoplestartedtravelingtoothercities....D.aftertheearly1950s-Passage2InhistypicallyAmericanopenstyleofcommunication,Mr.HayesconfrontedIsabetaaboutnotlookingathim.Reluctantly,sheexplainedwhy.AsanewcomerfromMexico,shehadbeentaughttoavoideyecontactasamarkofrespecttoauthorityfiguresteachers,employers,parents.Mr.Hayesdidnotknowthis.HetheninformedherthatmostAmericansinterprettackofeyecontactasdisrespectanddeviousness.Ultimately,heconvincedIsabelatotryandchangeherhabit,whichsheslowlydid.PeoplefrommanyAsian,LatinAmerican,andCaribbeanculturesalsoavoideyecontactasasignofrespect.ManyAfricanAmericans,especiallyfromtheSouth,observethiscustom,too:Amaster'sthesisbySamuelAvoian,agraduatestudentatCentralMissouriStateUniversity,tellshowmisinterpretingeye-contactcustomscanhaveanegativeimpactwhenwhitefootballcoachesrecruitAfricanAmericanplayersforthe~teams.Hereportsthat,whenspeaking,whitecommunicatorsusuallylookawayfromthelistener,onlyperiodicallyglancingatthem.TheydotheoppositewhenlisteningtheyareexpectedtolookatthespeakerallthetimeManyAfdcanAmericanscommunicateinanoppositeway.Whenspeaking,theytendtoconstantlystareatthelistener;whenlistening;theYmostlylo0kaway.'Therefore,ifv&itesportsrecruitersarenotinformedaboutthesesignificantdifference,theycanbemisledaboutinterestandattentivenesswheninterviewingprospectiveAfricanAmericanballplayers.InmulficulmralAmerica,issuesof.eye'contact'havebroughtaboutsocialconflictsoftwo.differentkdnds:in,manyurbancenters,.non-Koreancustomers.becameangz-ywhenKoreanshopkeepersdidnotlookat:them'directly.Thecustomerstranslatedthelackofeyecontactasasignofdisrespect,ahabitblamedforcontributingtotheopenconfrontationrakingplacebetweensomeAsiansandAfricanAmericansinNewYork,Texas,andCalifornia.ManyteacherstoohaveprovidedstoriesaboutclassroomconflictsbasedontheirmisunderstandingAsianandLatinAmericanchildren,slackofeyecontactasbeingdisrespectful.Ontheotherhand,directeyecontacthasnowtaken'onanewmeaningamongtheyoungergenerationandacrossethnicborders:Particularlyinurbancenters,whenoneteenagerlooksdirectlyatanother,this.isconsideredaprovocation,Sometimescalledmad-dogging,andcanleadtophysicalconflict."'Mad-d0gginghasbecomethesourceofmanycampusconf'ficts.:Inonehighschool,itresulted,in.afightbetweenCambodiannewcomersandAfrican-Americanstudents.TheCambodianshadbeenstaringattheotherstudentsmerelytolearnhowAmerienasbehave,yettheothersmisinterpretedtheCambodians'intentionsandthefightbegan.Mad-doggingseemstobeconnectedwiththeavoidanceofeyecontactasasignofrespect.Thus,intheurbancontemporaryyouthscene,ifonelooksdirectlyatanother,thisdisrespects,or"disses,"thatperson.Muchlikethearchaicphrase"Idemandsatisfaction,"whichbecametheoverturetoaduel,mad-doggingmaybecomeapreludetoaphysicalencounter.AttheentrancestoUniversal'Studio's"CityWalk"attractioninLosAngeles,theyhavepostedCodeofConductsigns.Thesecondrulewarnsagainst"physicallyorverballythreateninganyperson,fighting,annoyingothersthroughnoisyorboisterousactivitiesorbyunnecessarystaring...."46.ManyAfricanAmericansfromtheSouth__.A.adoptatypicallyAmericanopenstyleofcommunicationB.oftenmisinterpretthemeaningofeyecontactC.avoideyecontactasasignofrespectD.aretaughttoavoideyecontactwhenevertalldngtotheothers47.Whenlisteningtotheothers,whitecommunicatorstendto.A.lookatthespeakerallthetimeB.glanceatthespeakerperiodicallyC.lookawayfromthespeakerD.stareatthesper:drer.:':48.ManycustomersinAmericancitiesareangrywithKoreanshopkeepersbecause~A.KoreanshopkeepersdonotlookatthemdirectlyB.theyexpectamoreenthusiasticrecelSfi0nfromtheshopkeepersC-.therearesomesocialconflictsin'manyurbancentersD.theyarenotinformiedaboutdifferencebetweencultures49.Mad-doggingrefersto__A.aprovocationfromoneteenagertoanotherofadifferentethnicbackgroundB.physicalconflictamongtheyoungergenerationinurbancentersC.alackofeyecontactasasignofrespectD.thesourceofmanycampusconflictsacrossethnicbordersinurbancenters50.Thearchaicphrase,'Idemandsatisfaction"A.wasconnectedwiththeavoidanceof.eyecontactB.oftenledtoafightC.was.asignofdisrespect:D.oftenresultedinsomekindofmisinterpretationPassage3Whentelevisionisgood,nothingnotthetheatre,notthemagazines,ornewspapers-nothingisbetter.Butwhentelevisionisbad,nothingisworse.Iinviteyoutositdowninfrontofyourtelevisionsetwhenyourstationgoesontheairandstaytherewithoutabook,magazine,newspaper,oran2~hingelsetodistxactyouandkeeptfyoureyesgluedtothatsetuntilthestationsignsoff.Icanassureyouthatyouwillobserveavastwasteland.Youwillseeaprocessionofgameshows,violence,audienceparticipationshows,formulacomediesabouttotallyunbelievablefamilies,bloodandthunder,mayhem,moreviolence,sadism,murder,Westernbadmen,Westerngoodmen,privateeyes,gangster,stillmoreviolence,andcartoons.Andendlessly,commercialsthatscreamandoffend.Andmostofall,boredom.True,youwillseeafewthingsyouwillenjoy.Buttheywillbeyery,veryfew.AndifyouthinkIexaggerate,tryit.Istherenoroomontelevisiontoteach,toinform,touplift,toStretch,toenlargehecapacitiesofourchildren?Istherenoroomforprogramstodeepenthechildren'sunderstandingofchildreninotherlands?Istherenoroomforachildren'snewsshowexplainingsomething~abouttheworldforthemattheirlevelofunderstanding?Istherenoroomfor.readingg.thegreatliterature.....ofthepast,teachingthemthegreat-traditionsoffreedom?Therearesomef'mechildren'sshows,buttheyaredrownedoutinthemassivedosesofcartoons,violence,andmoreviolence.Mustthesebeyourtrademarks?Searchyourconscienceandseewhetheryoucannotoffermoretoyouryoungchildrenwhosefutureyouguardsomanyhourseachandeveryday.There::aremanypeopleinthis:greatcountry,andyoumustserveallofus.YouwillgetnoargumentfrommeifyouSaythat,givenachoicebetweenaWesternandasymphony,morepeoplewillwatchtheWestern.Ilike:Westernsandprivateeyes,too.-butasteadydietforthewholecountryisobviouslynotinthepublicinterest.Weallknowthatpeople.wouldmoreoftenprefertobeentertainedthanstimulatedorinformed.Butyourobligationsarenotsatisfiedifyoulookonlytopopularityasatestofwhattobroadcast.Youarenotonlyinshowbusiness;youarefreetocommunicateideasasweltastogiverelaxation.Youmustprovideawiderrangeofchoices,morediversity,morealternatives.Itisnotenoughtocarettothenation'swhimsyoumustalsoservethenation'sneeds.Thepeopleowntheair.Theyownitasmuchinprimeeveningtimeastheydoatsixo'clockinthemorning.Foreveryhourthatthepeoplegiveyou~youowethemsomething.Iintendtoseethatyourdebtispaidwithservice.51.Whattheauthoradvisesustodoisto!A.readabookwhilewatchingtelevisionprogramsB.observeavastwastelandontelev/sionC.watchalltheprogramsofourtelevisionstationD.findoutwhytelevisionisgood52.WhatseemstohaveoffendedtheauthormostontelevisionisA.violenceB.commerci,'dsC.WesternsD.privateeyes53.Asfaraschildrenareconcerned,theauthor'schiefcomplaintisthat__A.cartoonsandviolencehavebecometrademarksB.thereisnochildren's-newsshowontelevisionC.thereisnoreadingofgreatliteratureforchildrenD.therearenotenoughgoodtelevisionprogramsforchildren54.Accordingtotheauthor,itisinthepublicinteresttoA.broadcastonlypopulartelevisionprogramsB.caterfortheneeds-ofallthepeopleC.broadcastbothWesternsandsymphoniesD.entertainpeopleonly55.Itistheobligationoftelevisionbusinessto__A.catertothenation'swhimsB.providebestprogramsinprimeeveningfreeC.grams,atsixinthemorningD.servethenation'sneedsallthetimePassage4SomeOfmyclassmatesinthesamedormestablishedachattinggroupontheNetwhenbroadbandwasavailableoncampus.Theneveryonefacedtheirownlaptopsandtalkedtoeachotherbysendingmessagesinthechattinggroupinthesameroom.Theirdormwassilentthewhole'night.theonlysoundcamefromtappingthekeyboard.Beforetheywenttobedthatnight,allofthemsighedandsaid,that'sridiculous."InformationTechnologybringsaboutrevolufionarychangestohumancommunication.TheInternetmakestheworldaglobalvillage;thatistosay,wecangetintouchwitheachother:swiftlyregardless'ofone'slocation.However,doestheconvenienceincommumicationmeanthatweareactuallygettingcloser?idon'tthinkso.Astheanecdoteaboveshows,accesstobroadbandmademyfellowclassmatesfallinsilence.TheCambridgeInternationalDictionarydefines"comrnunication"as"variousfartherfromeachothertosomeextent.Mutualunderstandingisbasedonexpression.However,expressiondoesntnecessarilyleadtosoultouchingcommunicationandunderstanding.Whenwe$afrO,.withamereacquaintance,wenormallyconcealourtruefeelings.Thus,wedon'testablishcommunicationwithhim,becausewedonotneedhimtounderstandus.Theeraofcyberspacefurtherdemonstratessuchseparationofformandcontent.TheInternetgivesusnearlyabsolutefreedomtospeakandexpressourselves.Withtheprosperityofblog,thereare,accordingtorecentstatistics,about400,000bloggersinChinatoday,BloggersexpressthemselvesontheNetattheirwill,whileothersreadtheirblogandgivecommentsonceforawhile.Itseemsthatblogcanmakeustouchuponthebloggers'insideworld,andmakeusknowthembetter.However,thingsarenotalwaysthatperfect.MarlynetJzens:are:abusingtheirrightoffreeexpression.OnceyouopentheExplorer:andbrowseawebsite,trashinformationaboutsexandviolencehitsoureyes.PeoplescoldandflirtinthechatroomandBulletinBoardSystem(BBS).'Whenblogcomesintobeing,netizenseventransfersuchvulgarityintotheirpersonalspaces,andshowittothepublic.IntheeraoftheInformafionTechnology,boom,thefarthestdistanceOnearthisnolongerdiepolardistancethe.negativeimpactsbroughtaboutbycyberspacehaveimposedanunfilledgulfbetweensouls.Sincewe-carmotcommunicatetoeachotherlikebefore,thedistancebetweenpeople'sheartshasbecomethefarthestdistanceonearth.56.ThemostridiculouspartoftheanecdoteisthatA.therewasadeadsilenceinthedormroomthewholenightB.theonlysoundcanefromtappingthekeyboardC.thoselivinginthesameroomcommunicatedby.sendingmessagesviatheNetD.theyallfacedtheirownlaptops57A....ordmotOtheauthor,InformationTechnologyA;bringspeopleclosertoeachotherB.results/nsilence,amongherfellowclassmatesC.enablesustoreachanyoneswiftlyD.helpstomaketheworldaglobalvillage58.Theauthorbelievesthattheboomingofri'inmodernsocietyA.encouragestheexchangeofideasandthemutualunderstandingbetweenpeopleB.leadstosoultouchingcommunicationandunderstandingC.helpstoestablishasatisfactoryrelationshipD.resultsinfurtherseparationbetweenpeople59.TheprosperityofblogdoesnothelpustotoucheachotherbecauseA.manypeopleabusetheirrightoffreeexpressionontheNetB.vulgarityhasbeentransferredintobloggers'personalspacesC.bloggersexpressthemselvesontheNetattheirwillD.anyoneisabletoreadblogandgivecomments60.TheauthorbelievesthatintheeraoftheInformationTechnologyboomthedistance'betweenpeople'sheartshasbecomethefarthestdistanceonearthbecause__.A.thereisalwaysasilenceB.peoplearenotabletocommunicatetoeachotherlikebeforeC.theIntemetgivesusnearlyabsolutefreedomtoexpressourselvesD.peoplecanscoldandflirtinthechatroomatwill~Passage5AccordingtoarecentpublicationoftheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCorrunission,atthepresentrateof,'progress"itwilltakeforty-threeyearstOendjobdiscrimination--hardlyareasonabletimetable.Ifourgoaliseducationalandeconomicequityandparity-anditisthenweneedaffirmativeaction.tocatchupiWearebehihdasaresultofdiscriminationanddenialofopportunity.Thereisonewhiteattorneyforevery680wtfites,butonlyoneblackattorneyforevery4,000blacks;onewhitephysicianforevery659whites,butonlyoneblackphysicianforevery5,000blacks;andonewhitedentistforevery1,900whites,butonlyoneblackdentistforevery8,400blacks.Lessth,mi1percentofall.engineersorofallpracticingchemists--isblack.Cruelanduncompassionateinjusticecreatedgapslikethese.Weneedcre'ativejusticeandcompassiontohelpusclosethem.Actually,intheU.S.context,"reversediscrimination"isillogicalandaconradicfioninterms.Neverint