中国哲学简史-冯友兰（英文版）

AUTHORSPREFACE

ASHORThistoryofanysubjectshouldnotsimplybeanabridgementofalarger

one.Itshouldbeapicturecompleteinitself,ratherthanamereinventoryofnames

and"isms/Toachievethis,theauthorshould,asaChineseexpressionsays,nhavethe

wholehistoryinhismind.Onlythencanhegivethereaderanadequateand

well-roundedaccountwithinhischosenlimitedscope.

AccordingtoChinesehistoriography,agoodhistorianmusthavewide

scholarshipinordertomasterallhismaterials,soundjudgmenttomakeproper

selectionofthem,andliterarytalentinordertotellhisstoryinaninterestingway.In

writingashorthistory,intendedforageneralpublic,theauthorcertainlyhasless

chancetodisplayhisscholarship,butheneedsmoreselectivejudgmentandliterary

talentthanhewouldforwritingalongerandstrictlyscholarlywork.

Inpreparingthiswork,IhavetriedtousemybestjudgmentinselectingwhatI

considerimportantandrelevantfrommaterialswhichIhavemastered.Iwasvery

fortunate,however,tohaveaseditorDr.DerkBodde,whohasusedhisliterarytalent

tomakethestyleofthebookinteresting,read-able,andcomprehensibletothe

Westernreader.Hehasalsomadesuggestionsregardingtheselectionand

arrangementofthematerial.

Beingashorthistory,thisbookservesasnomorethananintroductiontothe

studyofChinesephilosophy.Ifthereaderwishestoknowmoreaboutthesubject,I

wouldreferhimtomylargerwork,AHistoryofChinesePhilosophy.Thefirst

volumeofthishasbeentranslatedbyDr.Bodde,andheisnowtranslatingthesecond

one;alsotomymorerecentwork,TheSpiritofChinesePhilosophy,translatedbyMr.

E.R.HughesofOxfordUniversity.Bothworksarementionedinthebibliography

compiledbyDr.Boddeattheendofthepresentbook.Acknowledgementsaredueto

bothDr.BoddeandMr.Hughes,fromwhosebooksIhaveborrowedsome

translationsoftheChinesetextsappearingherein.

Inpublishingthisbook,Iwelcometheopportunityofexpressingmythanksto

theRockefellerFoundationforthegrantwhichmadeitpossibleformetocomefrom

ChinatotheUniversityofPennsylvaniaasVisitingProfessorduringtheyear1946-47,

andwhichresultedinthewritingofthisbook.Also,Iwishtothankmycolleagues

andstudentsintheDepartmentofOrientalStudiesfortheircooperationand

encouragement,andespeciallyDr.Bodde,AssociateProfessorofChinese.Iam

likewisegratefultoDr.A.W.Hummel,ChiefoftheAsiaticDivision,Libraryof

Congress,forhisencouragementandhelpinmakingarrangementsforthepublication

ofthebook.

FUNC.YU-LAN

June,1947

UniversityofPennsylvania

CHAPTER1

THESPIRITOFCHINESEPHILOSOPHY

THEplacewhichphilosophyhasoccupiedinChinesecivilizationhasbeen

comparabletothatofreligioninothercivilizations.InChina,philosophyhasbeen

everyeducatedperson'sconcern.Intheolddays,ifamanwereeducatedatall,the

firsteducationhereceivedwasinphilosophy.Whenchildrenwenttoschool,theFour

Books,whichconsistoftheConfucianAnalects,theBookofMencius,theGreat

Learning,andtheDoctrineoftheMean,werethefirstonestheyweretaughttoread.

TheFourBookswerethemostimportanttextsofNeo-Confucianistphilosophy.

Sometimeswhenthechildrenwerejustbeginningtolearnthecharacters,theywere

givenasortoftextbooktoread.ThiswasknownastheThreeCharactersClassic,and

wassocalledbecauseeachsentenceinthebookconsistedofthreecharacters

arrangedsothatwhenrecitedtheyproducedarhythmiceffect,andthushelpedthe

childrentomemorizethemmoreeasily.Thisbookwasinrealityaprimer,andthe

veryfirststatementinitisthat"thenatureofmanisoriginallygood."Thisisoneof

thefundamentalideasofMencius1philosophy.

PlaceofPhilosophyinChineseCivilization

TotheWesterner,whoseesthatthelifeoftheChinesepeopleispermeatedwith

Confucianism,itappearsthatConfucianismisareligion.Asamatteroffact,however,

Confucianismisnomoreareligionthan,say,PlatonismorAristotelianism.Itistrue

thattheFourBookshavebeentheBibleoftheChinesepeople,butintheFourBooks

thereisnostoryofcreation,andnomentionofaheavenorhell.

Ofcourse,thetermsphilosophyandreligionarebothambiguous,Philosophy

andreligionmayhaveentirelydifferentmeaningsfordifferentpeople.Whenmentalk

aboutphilosophyorreligion,theymayhavequitedifferentideasintheirminds

concerningthem.Formypart,whatIcallphilosophyissystematic,reflectivethinking

onlife.Everyman,whohasnotyetdied,isinlife.Buttherearenotmanywhothink

reflectivelyonlife,andstillfewerwhosereflectivethinkingissystematic.A

philosophermustphilosophize;thatistosay,hemustthinkreflectivelyonlife,and

thenexpresshisthoughtssystematically.

Thiskindofthinkingiscalledreflectivebecauseittakeslifeasitsobject.The

theoryoflife,thetheoryoftheuniverse,andthetheoryofknowledgeallemergefrom

thistypeofthinking.Thetheoryoftheuniversearisesbecausetheuniverseisthe

backgroundoflife-thestageonwhichthedramaoflifetakesplace.Thetheoryof

knowledgeemergesbecausethinkingisitselfknowledge.Accordingtosome

philosophersoftheWest,inordertothink,wemustfirstfindoutwhatwecanthink;

thatistosay,beforewestarttothinkaboutlife,wemustfirstthinkourthinking.

Suchtheoriesarealltheproductsofreflectivethinking.Theveryconceptoflife,

theveryconceptoftheuniverse,andtheveryconceptofknowledgearealsothe

productsofreflectivethinking.Nomatterwhetherwethinkaboutlifeorwhetherwe

talkaboutit,weareallinthemidstofit.Andnomatterwhetherwethinkorspeak

abouttheuniverse,weareallapartofit.Now,whatthephilosopherscalltheuniverse

isnotthesameaswhatthephysicistshaveinmindwhentheyrefertoit.Whatthe

philosopherscalltheuniverseisthetotalityofallthatis.Itisequivalenttowhatthe

ancientChinesephilosopher,HuiShih,called"TheGreatOne,"whichisdefinedas

thatwhichhasnothingbeyond.Soeveryoneandeverythingmustbeconsideredpart

oftheuniverse.Whenonethinksabouttheuniverse,oneisthinkingreflectively.

Whenwethinkaboutknowledgeorspeakaboutknowledge,thisthinkingand

speakingarethemselvesknowledge.TouseanexpressionofAristotle,itis"thinking

onthinking";andthisisreflectivethinking.Hereistheviciouscirclewhichthose

philosophersfollowwhoinsistthatbeforewethinkwemustfirstthinkaboutour

thinking;justasifwehadanotherfacultywithwhichwecouldthinkaboutthinking!

Asamatteroffact,thefacultywithwhichwethinkaboutthinkingistheverysame

facultywithwhichwethink.Ifweareskepticalaboutthecapacityofourthinkingin

regardtolifeandtheuniverse,wehavethesamereasontobeskepticalaboutthe

capacityofourthinkinginregardtothinking.

Religionalsohassomethingtodowithlife.Intheheartofeverygreatreligion

thereisaphilosophy.Infact,everygreatreligionisaphilosophywithacertain

amountofsuperstructure,whichconsistsofsuperstitions,dogmas,rituals,and

institutions.Thisiswhat1callreligion.

Ifoneunderstandsthetermreligioninthissense,whichdoesnotreallydiffer

verymuchfromcommonusage,oneseesthatConfucianismcannotbeconsidereda

religion.PeoplehavebeenaccustomedtosaythattherewerethreereligionsinChina:

Confucianism,Taoism,andBuddhism.ButConfucianism,aswehaveseen,isnota

religion.AstoTaoism,thereisadistinctionbetweenTaoismasaphilosophy,whichis

calledToochia(theTaoistschool),andtheTaoistreligion{Toochiao).Their

teachingsarenotonlydif-

Godisreallytheuniverse.Strictlyspeaking,theloveofGodinChristianityis

notreallysuper-moral.ThisisbecauseGod,inChristianity,isapersonality,and

consequentlytheloveofGodbymaniscomparabletotheloveofafatherbyhisson,

whichisamoralvalue.Therefore,theloveofGodinChristianityisopentoquestion

asasuper-moralvalue.Itisaquasisuper-moralvalue,whiletheloveofGodinthe

philosophyofSpinozaisarealsuper-moralvalue.

Toanswertheabovequestions,Iwouldsaythatthecravingforsomething

beyondthepresentactualworldisoneoftheinnatedesiresofmankind,andthe

Chinesepeoplearenoexceptiontothisrule.Theyhavenothadmuchconcernwith

religionbecausetheyhavehadsomuchconcernwithphilosophy.Theyarenot

religiousbecausetheyarephilosophical.Inphilosophytheysatisfytheircravingfor

whatisbeyondthepresentactualworld.Inphilosophyalsotheyhavethesuper-moral

valuesexpressedandappreciated,andinlivingaccordingtophilosophythese

super-moralvaluesareexperienced.

AccordingtothetraditionofChinesephilosophy,itsfunctionisnottheincrease

ofpositiveknowledge(bypositiveknowledgeImeaninformationregardingmatters

offact),buttheelevationofthemind-areachingoutforwhatisbeyondthepresent

actualworld,andforthevaluesthatarehigherthanthemoralones.Itwassaidbythe

Lao-tzu:Toworkonlearningistoincreasedaybyday;toworkonTao(theWay,the

Truth)istodecreasedaybyday.*'(Seech.48.)Iamnotconcernedwiththedifference

betweenin-creasinganddecreasing,nordoIquiteagreewiththissayingofLao-tzu.I

quoteitonlytoshowthatinthetraditionofChinesephilosophythereisadistinction

betweenworkingonlearningandworkingonTao(theWay).Thepurposeofthe

formeriswhatIcalltheincreaseofpositiveknowledge,thatofthelatteristhe

elevationofthemind.Philosophybelongstothelattercategory.

Theviewthatthefunctionofphilosophy,especiallymetaphysics,isnotthe

increaseofpositiveknowledge,isexpoundedbytheVienneseschoolincontemporary

Westernphilosophy,thoughfromadifferentangleandforadifferentpurpose.Ido

notagreewiththisschoolthatthefunctionofphilosophyisonlytheclarificationof

ideas,andthatthenatureofmetaphysicsisonlyalyricofconcepts.Nevertheless,in

theirargumentsonecanseequiteclearlythatphilosophy,especiallymetaphysics,

wouldbecomenonsenseifitdidattempttogiveinformationregardingmattersoffact.

Religiondoesgiveinformationinregardtomattersoffact.Buttheinformation

givenbyreligionisnotinharmonywiththatgivenbyscience.SointheWestthere

hasbeentheconflictbetweenreligionandscience.Wherescienceadvances,religion

retreats;andtheauthorityofreligionrecedesbe-foretheadvancementofscience.The

traditionalistsregrettedthisfactandpitiedthepeoplewhohadbecomeirreligious,

consideringthemashavingdegenerated.Theyoughtindeedtobepitied,if,besides

religion,theyhadnootheraccesstothehighervalues.Whenpeoplegetridofreligion

andhavenosubstitute,theyalsolosethehighervalues.Theyhavetoconfine

them-selvestomundaneaffairsandhavenothingtodowiththespiritualones.

Fortunately,however,besidesreligionthereisphilosophy,whichprovidesmanwith

anaccesstothehighervalues-anaccesswhichismoredirectthanthatprovidedby

religion,becauseinphilosophy,inordertobeacquaintedwiththehighervalues,man

neednottaketheroundaboutwaypro-videdbyprayersandrituals.Thehighervalues

withwhichmanhasbecomeacquaintedthroughphilosophyareevenpurerthanthose

acquiredthroughreligion,becausetheyarenotmixedwithimaginationand

superstition.Intheworldofthefuture,manwillhavephilosophyintheplaceof

religion.ThisisconsistentwithChinesetradition.Itisnotnecessarythatmanshould

bereligious,butitisnecessarythatheshouldbephilosophical.Whenheis

philosophical,hehastheverybestoftheblessingsofreligion.

ProblemandSpiritofChinesePhilosophy

Theaboveisageneraldiscussionofthenatureandfunctionofphilosophy.Inthe

followingremarksIshallspeakmorespecificallyaboutChinesephilosophy.Thereis

amaincurrentinthehistoryofChinesephilosophy,whichmaybecalledthespiritof

Chinesephilosophy.Inordertounderstandthisspirit,wemustfirstmakeclearthe

problemthatmostChinesephilosophershavetriedtosolve.

Thereareallkindsandconditionsofmen.Withregardtoanyoneofthesekinds,

thereisthehighestformofachievementofwhichanyonekindofmaniscapable.For

instance,therearethemenengagedinpracticalpolitics.Thehighestformof

achievementinthatclassofmenisthatofthegreatstatesman.Soalsointhefieldof

art,thehighestformofachievementofwhichartistsarecapableisthatofthegreat

artist.Althoughtherearethesedifferentclassesofmen,yetallofthemaremen.What

isthehighestformofachievementofwhichamanasamaniscapable?Accordingto

theChinesephilosophers,itisnothinglessthanbeingasage,andthehighest

achievementofasageistheidentificationoftheindividualwiththeuniverse.The

problemis,ifmenwanttoachievethisidentification,dotheynecessarilyhaveto

abandonsocietyoreventonegatelife?

Accordingtosomephilosophers,thisisnecessary.TheBuddhasaidthatlife

itselfistherootandfountainheadofthemiseryoflife.Likewise,Platosaidthatthe

bodyistheprisonofthesoul.AndsomeoftheTaoistssaidthatlifeisanexcrescence,

atumor,anddeathistobetakenasthebreakingofthetumor.Alltheseideas

representaviewwhichentailsseparationfromwhatmaybecalledtheentanglingnet

ofthematter-corruptedworld;andtherefore,ifthehighestachievementofasageisto

berealized,thesagehastoabandonsocietyandevenlifeitself.Onlythuscanthe

finalliberationbeattained.Thiskindofphilosophyiswhatisgenerallyknownas

"other-worldlyphilosophy.1

Thereisanotherkindofphilosophywhichemphasizeswhatisinsociety,suchas

humanrelationsandhumanaffairs.Thiskindofphilosophyspeaksonlyaboutmoral

values,andisunabletoordoesnotwishtospeakofthesuper-moralones.Thiskind

ofphilosophyisgenerallydescribedas”this-worldly.Fromthepointofviewofa

this-worldlyphilosophy,another-worldphilosophyistooidealistic,isofno

practicaluseandisnegative.Fromthepointofviewofanother-worldlyphilosophy,a

this-worldphilosophyistoorealistic,toosuperficial.Itmaybepositive,butitislike

thequickwalkingofamanwhohastakenthewrongroad:themorequicklyhewalks

thefurtherhegoesastray.

TherearemanypeoplewhosaythatChinesephilosophyisathisworld

philosophy.Itisdifficulttostatethatthesepeopleareentirelyrightorentirelywrong.

Takingamerelysuperficialview,peoplewhoholdthisopinioncannotbesaidtobe

wrong,becauseaccordingtotheirview,Chinesephilosophy,regardlessofitsdifferent

schoolsofthought,isdirectlyorindirectlyconcernedwithgovernmentandethics.On

thesurface,therefore,itisconcernedchieflywithsociety,andnotwiththeuniverse;

withthedailyfunctionsofhumanrelations,nothellandheaven;withman'spresent

life,butnothislifeinaworldtocome.Whenhewasonceaskedbyadiscipleabout

themeaningofdeath,Confuciusreplied:"Notyetunderstandinglife,howcanyou

understanddeath?(Analects,XI,IL)AndMenciussaid:Thesageistheacmeof

humanrelations'1(Mencius,IVa,2.),which,takenliterally,meansthatthesageisthe

morallyperfectmaninsociety.Fromasurfacepointofview,withtheidealmanbeing

ofthisworld,itseemsthatwhatChinesephilosophycallsasageisapersonofavery

differentorderfromtheBuddhaofBuddhismandthesaintsoftheChristianreligion.

Superficially,thiswouldseemtobeespeciallytrueoftheConfuciansage.Thatiswhy,

inancienttimes,ConfuciusandtheConfucianistsweresogreatlyridiculedbythe

Taoists.This,however,isonlyasurfaceviewofthematter.Chinesephilosophy

cannotbeunderstoodbyoversimplificationofthiskind.Sofarasthemaintenetofits

traditionisconcerned,ifweunderstanditaright,itcannotbesaidtobewholly

this-worldly,justas,ofcourse,itcannotbesaidtobewhollyother-worldly.Itisboth

ofthisworldandoftheotherworld.SpeakingabouttheNeo-Confucianismofthe

SungDynasty,onephilosopherde-scribeditthisway:Itisnotdivorcedfromdaily

ordinaryactivities,yetitgoesstraighttowhatantedatedHeaven.0Thisiswhat

Chinesephilosophyhasstrivenfor.Havingthiskindofspirit,itisatoneandthesame

timebothextremelyidealisticandextremelyrealistic,andverypractical,thoughnot

inasuperficialway.This-worldlinessandother-worldlinessstandincontrasttoeach

otherasdorealismandidealism.ThetaskofChinesephilosophyistoaccomplisha

synthesisoutoftheseantitheses.Thatdoesnotmeanthattheyaretobeabolished.

Theyarestillthere,buttheyhavebeenmadeintoasyntheticwhole.Howcanthisbe

done?ThisistheproblemwhichChinesephilosophyattemptstosolve.

AccordingtoChinesephilosophy,themanwhoaccomplishesthissynthesis,not

onlyintheorybutalsoindeed,isthesage.Heisboththis-worldlyandother-worldly.

ThespiritualachievementoftheChinesesagecorrespondstothesaintsachievement

inBuddhism,andinWesternreligion.ButtheChinesesageisnotonewhodoesnot

concernhimselfwiththebusinessoftheworld.Hischaracterisdescribedasoneof

sagelinesswithinandkinglinesswithout.1Thatistosay,inhisinnersageliness,he

accomplishesspiritualcultivation;inhiskinglinesswithout,hefunctionsinsociety.It

isnotnecessarythatthesageshouldbetheactualheadofthegovernmentinhis

society.Fromthestandpointofpracticalpolitics,forthemostpart,thesagecertainly

hasnochanceofbeingtheheadofthestate.Thesaying^sagelinesswithinand

kinglinesswithout**meansonlythathewhohasthenoblestspiritshould,theoretically,

beking.Astowhetherheactuallyhasorhasnotthechanceofbeingking,thatis

immaterial.

Sincethecharacterofthesageis,accordingtoChinesetradition,oneof

sagelinesswithinandkinglinesswithout,thetaskofphilosophyistoenablemanto

developthiskindofcharacter.Therefore,whatphilosophydiscussesiswhatthe

ChinesephilosophersdescribeastheTao(Way,orbasicprinciples)ofsageliness

withinandkinglinesswithout.

ThissoundslikethePlatonictheoryofthephilosopher-king.AccordingtoPlato,

inanidealstate,thephilosophershouldbethekingorthekingshouldbea

philosopher;andinordertobecomeaphilosopher,amanmustundergoalongperiod

ofphilosophicaltrainingbeforehismindcanbeconvertedfromtheworldof

changingthingstotheworldofeternalideas.ThusaccordingtoPlato,asaccordingto

theChinesephilosophers,thetaskofphilosophyistoenablemantohavethe

characterofsagelinesswithinandkinglinesswithout.ButaccordingtoPlato,whena

philosopherbecomesaking,hedoessoagainsthiswill-inotherwords,itis

somethingforcedonhim,andentailsagreatsacrificeonhispart.Thisiswhatwas

alsoheldbytheancientTaoists.Thereisthestoryofasagewho,beingaskedbythe

peopleofacertainstatetobecometheirking,escapedandhidhimselfinamountain

cave.Butthepeoplefoundthecave,smokedhimoutandcompelledhimtoassume

thedifficulttask.(LiishihCh'un・ch'iu,I,1.)ThisisonesimilaritybetweenPlatoand

theancientTaoists,anditalsoshowsthecharacterofother-worldlinessinTaoist

philosophy.FollowingthemaintraditionofChinesephilosophy,theNeo-Taoist,

KuoHsiangofthethirdcenturyA.D.,revisedthispoint.

AccordingtoConfucianism,thedailytaskofdealingwithsocialaffairsin

humanrelationsisnotsomethingalientothesage.Carryingonthistaskisthevery

essenceofthedevelopmentoftheperfectionofhispersonality.Heperformsitnot

onlyasacitizenofsociety,butalsoasacitizenoftheuniverse,tienmin,asMencius

calledit.Hemustbeconsciousofhisbeingacitizenoftheuniverse,otherwisehis

deedswouldnothavesuper-moralvalue.Ifhehadthechancetobecomeakinghe

wouldgladlyservethepeople,thusperforminghisdutybothasacitizenofsociety,

andasacitizenoftheuniverse.

SincewhatisdiscussedinphilosophyistheTao(Way)ofsagelinesswith-inand

kinglinesswithout,itfollowsthatphilosophymustbeinseparablefrompolitical

thought.RegardlessofthedifferencesbetweentheschoolsofChinesephilosophy,the

philosophyofeveryschoolrepresents,atthesametime,itspoliticalthought.This

doesnotmeanthatinthevariousschoolsofphilosophytherearenometaphysics,no

ethics,nologic.Itmeansonlythatallthesefactorsareconnectedwithpolitical

thoughtinonewayoranother,justasPlatosRepublicrepresentshiswhole

philosophyandatthesametimeishispoliticalthought.

Forinstance,theSchoolofNameswasknowntoindulgeinsuchargumentsasa

whitehorseisnotahorse,whichseemstohaveverylittleconnectionwithpolitics.

Yettheleaderofthisschool,Kung-sunLung,wishedtoextendthiskindofargument

torectifytherelationshipbetweennamesandfactsinordertotransformtheworld.

Wehaveseeninourworldtodayhoweverystatesmansayshiscountrywantsonly

peace,butinfact,whenheistalkingaboutpeace,heisoftenpreparingforwar.Here,

then,thereisawrongrelationshipbetweennamesandfacts.AccordingtoKung-sun

Lung,thiskindofwrongrelationshipshouldberectified.Thisisreallythefirststep

towardsthetransformationoftheworld.

SincethesubjectmatterofphilosophyistheTaoofsagelinesswithinand

kinglinesswithout,thestudyofphilosophyisnotsimplyanattempttoac-quirethis

kindofknowledge,butisalsoanattempttodevelopthiskindofcharacter.Philosophy

isnotsimplysomethingtobeknown,butisalsosome-thingtobeexperienced.Itis

notsimplyasortofintellectualgame,butsomethingfarmoreserious.Asmy

colleague,ProfessorYL.Chin,haspointedoutinanunpublishedmanuscript:

*'ChinesephilosopherswereallofthemdifferentgradesofSocrates.Thiswasso

becauseethics,politics,reflectivethinking,andknowledgewereunifiedinthe

philosopher;inhim,knowledgeandvirtuewereoneandinseparable.Hisphilosophy

requiredthatheliveit;hewashimselfitsvehicle.Toliveinaccordancewithhis

philosophicalconvictionswaspartofhisphilosophy.Itwashisbusinesstoschool

him-selfcontinuallyandpersistentlytothatpureexperienceinwhichselfishnessand

egocentricityweretranscended,sothathewouldbeonewiththeuniverse.Obviously

thisprocessofschoolingcouldnotbestopped,forstoppingitwouldmeanthe

emergenceofhisegoandthelossofhisuniverse.Hencecognitivelyhewaseternally

groping,andconativelyhewaseternallybehavingortryingtobehave.Sincethese

couldnotbeseparated,inhimtherewasthesynthesisofthephilosopherinthe

originalsenseofthatterm.LikeSocrates,hedidnotkeepofficehourswithhis

philosophy.Neitherwasheadusty,mustyphilosopher,closetedinhisstudy,sittingin

achairontheperipheryoflife.Withhim,philosophywashardlyevermerelya

patternofideasexhibitedforhumanunderstanding,butwasasystemofprecepts

internaltotheconductofthephilosopher;andinextremecaseshisphilosophymight

evenbesaidtobehisbiography.n

TheWayinwhichChinesePhilosophersExpressedThemselves

AWesternstudentbeginningthestudyofChinesephilosophyisinstantly

confrontedwithtwoobstacles.One,ofcourse,isthelanguagebarrier;theotheristhe

peculiarwayinwhichtheChinesephilosophershaveexpressedthemselves.Iwill

speakaboutthelatterfirst.

WhenonebeginstoreadChinesephilosophicalworks,thefirstimpressionone

getsisperhapsthebriefnessanddisconnectednessofthesayingsandwritingsoftheir

authors.OpentheConfucianAnalectsandyouwillseethateachparagraphconsistsof

onlyafewwords,andthereishardlyanyconnectionbetweenoneparagraphandthe

next.OpenabookcontainingthephilosophyofLaoTzu,andyouwillfindthatthe

wholebookconsistsofaboutfivethousandwords-nolongerthanamagazinearticle;

yetinitonewillfindthewholeofhisphilosophy.Astudentaccustomedtoelaborate

reasoninganddetailedargumentwouldbeatalosstounderstandwhattheseChinese

philosophersweresaying.Hewouldbeinclinedtothinkthattherewas

disconnectednessinthethoughtitself.Ifthiswereso,therewouldbenoChinese

philosophy.Fordisconnectedthoughtishardlyworthyofthenameofphilosophy.

Itmaybesaidthattheapparentdisconnectednessofthesayingsandwritingsof

theChinesephilosophersisduetothefactthatthesesayingsandwritingsarenot

formalphilosophicalworks.AccordingtoChinesetradition,thestudyofphilosophy

isnotaprofession.EveryoneshouldstudyphilosophyjustasintheWesteveryone

shouldgotochurch.Thepurposeofthestudyofphilosophyistoenableaman,asa

man,tobeaman,notsomeparticularkindofman.Otherstudies-notthestudyof

philosophy-enableamantobesomespecialkindofman.Sotherewereno

professionalphilosophers;andnon-professionalphilosophersdidnothavetoproduce

formalphilosophicalwritings.InChina,therewerefarmorephilosopherswho

producednoformalphilosophicalwritingsthanthosewhodid.Ifonewishestostudy

thephilosophyofthesemen,onehastogototherecordsoftheirsayingsortheletters

theywrotetodisciplesandfriends.Theselettersdidnotbelongtojustoneperiodin

thelifeofthepersonwhowrotethem,norweretherecordswrittenonlybyasingle

person.Disconnectednessoreveninconsistencybetweenthemis,therefore,tobe

expected.

Theforegoingmayexplainwhythewritingsandsayingofsomephilosophers

aredisconnected;butitdoesnotexplainwhytheyarebrief.Insomephilosophic

writings,suchasthoseofMenciusandHstinTzu,oned