营销渠道和价值网络-毕业论文外文翻译

ChannelsandValueMostproducersdonotselltheirgoodsdirectlytothefinalusers;betweenthemstandsasetofintermediariesperformingavarietyoffunctions.Theseintermediariesconstituteamarketingchannel(alsocalledatradechannelordistributionchannel).Formally,marketingchannelsaresetsinterdependentorganizationsinvolvedinprocessofmakingproductserviceavailableforuseconsumption.Theythesetofpathwaysaproductorservicefollowsafterproduction,culminatinginpurchaseandusebythefinalenduser.omeintermediaries-suchaswholesalersandretailers-buy,taketitleto,andresellthemerchandise;theyarecalledmerchants.Others-brokers,manufacturers'representatives,salesagents-searchcustomersandmaynegotiateontheproducer'sbehalfbutdonottaketitletothegoods;theyarecalledagents.Stillothers-transportationcompanies,independentwarehouses,banks,advertisingagencies-assistinthedistributionprocessbutneithertaketitletogoodsnornegotiatepurchasesorsales;theyarecalledfacilitators.heImportanceChannelsAsetafirmemploys,anddecisionsaboutitareamongthemostcriticalonesmanagementfaces.theUnitedStates,channelmemberscollectivelyhaveearnedmarginsaccountfor30%50%theultimatesellingprice.Incontrast,advertisingtypicallyhasaccountedforlessthan5%to7%ofthefinalprice.Marketingchannelsalsorepresentasubstantialopportunitycost.Oneofthechiefrolesofmarketingchannelsistoconvertpotentialbuyersintoprofitablecustomers.musttheyalsomakemarkets.Thechannelschosenaffectallothermarketingdecisions.Thecompany'spricingdependsonwhetheritusesmassmerchandisersorhigh-qualityboutiques.Thefirm'ssaleforceandadvertisingdecisionsdependonhowmuchtrainingandmotivationdealersneed.Inaddition,channeldecisionsincluderelativelylong-termcommitmentswithotherfinnsaswellasasetpoliciesandanautomakersignsupindependent·erstosellitsautomobiles,theautomakercannotbuythemoutthenextdayandreplacethemwithcompany-ownedoutlets.Butatthesametime,channelchoicesthemselvesonmarketingstrategywithrespecttosegmentation,targeting,andpositioning.Holisticmarketersensurethatmarketingdecisionsinallthesedifferentareasaremadetocollectivelymaximizevalue.Inthefirmtodevotetopushversuspullmarketing.Apushstrategyusesthemanufacturer'ssalesforce,tradepromotionmoney,orothermeanstoinducetoselltheendusers.Pushisbrandchoiceismadeinthestore,theproductisanimpulseitem,andproductamanufacturerusesadvertising,promotion,andotherofcommunicationtopersuadeconsumerstodemandtheproductfromintermediaries,thusinducingtheintermediariestoorderit.Pullstrategyisappropriatewhenthereishighbrandloyaltyandhighinvolvementinthecategory,whenconsumersareableto·ceivedifferencesbetweenbrands,andwhenthebrandbeforetheygotothestore.Foryears,drugcompaniesaimedadssolelyatdoctorsandhospitals,butin1997theFDAissuedguidelinesforTVadsthatopenedthewayforpharmaceuticalstoreachconsumersdirectly.Thisisparticularlyevidentintheburgeoningbusinessofprescriptionsleepaids.SEPRACORINC.Theincreaseduseofprescriptionsleepaidsisduenotsomuchtoanincreaseinthenumberofinsomniacs,astothebillionsofdollarsthedrugcompaniesrespendingonprintandTVadvertising.ConsiderSepracor'sadsforLunesta,featuringapalegreenLunamothflittingaroundtheheadofapeacefulsleeper.Sepracorspent$2.98millionin1consumeradvertisingin2006,anditsstockandsaleshavejumpedduetoitssuccessfulTheindustryasaspentmorethan$4billiononconsumerin2005,afivefoldin10years.ItsaggressivepUllmarketingstrategyhas,however,promptedintensedebateandscrutinyfromCongress.Afterall,whileaggressiveadvertisingofMerck'sVioxxgeneratedhugeitexposedhousandsofU.S.toheartCriticsofnewadsdrugstheythanthereasontheycan'tsleep(whichcanrangefromsimplestresstoseriousillness).Proponentsofsuchadssaythatinaneraofmanagedcareandshorteneddoctorvisits,adseducatepatientsandsparkimportantconversationswithdoctors.AlthoughthepharmaceuticalindustryisunlikelytopUllback,Bristol-MyersSquibbCo.haswonsomekudosforvoluntarilyadsyearonTopmarketingcompaniessuchCoca-Cola,andNikeskillfullyemploybothpushandpullstrategies.Marketingactivitiesdirectedtowardsthechannelaspartofapushstrategyaremoreeffectivewhenaccompaniedbyawell-designedandwell-executedpullstrategythatactivatesconsumerdemand.Ontheotherhand,withoutatleastsomeconsumerinterest,itcanbeverydifficulttogainmuchchannelacceptanceandsupport.ChannelDevelopmentAnewfirmstartsaslocalseIlinginafairlycircumscribedmarket,usingıexistingintermediaries.Thenumberofsuchintermediariesisapttobelimited:afewufacturers'salesagents,afewwholesalers,severalestablishedretailers,afewtruckingcomıpanies,andaDecidingonthechannelsmightnotbeaıproblemthemediariestohandlethefirm'sline.Ifthefirmissuccessful,itmightbranchintonewmarketsandusedifferentchannelsindifferentmarkets.Insmallermarkets,thefirmmightretailers;inlargermarkets,itthroughdistributors.Inruralareas,itworkwithgeneral-goods2inurbanwithmerchants.Inonepartoftheitmightgrantexclusivefranchises;inanother,itmightseJJthroughaJJoutletswitIingtohandlethemerchandise.Inonecountry,itmightuseitwithalocalfirm.Internationalmarketsposedistinctchallenges.Customers'shoppinghabitscanvarybyandmanyasGermany'sAldi,theUnitedKingdom'sTesco,andSpain'sZarahaveredefinedthemselvestoaenteringatobetterimagetolocalneedsandwants.Retailersthathavelargelystucktothesamesellingformularegardlessofgeography,suchasEddieBauer,Marks&Spencer,andWal-Mart,marketingstrategyforItsentranceinto1MUS.markettoslockdifferentnationalmanufacturerhavesometimesencounteredtroubleinenteringnewmarkets.Inshort,thechannelsystemevolvesasafunctionoflocalopportunitiesandconditions,emergingthreatsandopportunities,companyresourcesandcapabilities,andotherfactors.ConsidersomeofthechallengesDellhasencounteredinrecentyears.DELLDellrevolutionizedthepersonalcomputercategorybysellingproductstotheratherthanretailersorresellers.coulddesigntheexactPCtheywanted,andrigorouscostcuttingallowedforloweverydayprices.Soundlikeawinningformula?Itwasforalmosttwodecades.But2006sawtheencounteranumberofproblemsledtoacompetitorssuchasHPnarrowedthegapinproductivityandAlwaysfocusedonthebusinessmarket,Dellstruggledtoselleffectivelytotheconsumermarket.preferencestoasopposedtobuyingdirectdidn'thelp,butself-inflicteddamagefromanultraefficientsqueezedcosts-andofcustomerservicewasperhapsthemostpainfuLManagersevaluatedcalfcenteremployeesprimarilyhowfongtheystayedoneachfordisasterasscoresofcustomersfelttheirproblemswereignoredor3notproperlyhandled.AlackofR&Dspendingthathinderednew-productdevelopmentandledtoalackofdifferentiationdidn'thelpeither.Clearly,Dellwasenteringanewchapterinitshistorythatwouldrequireafundamentalrethinkingofitschannelstrategyanditsmarketingapproachasawhole.HybridChannelsToday'ssuccessfulcompaniesarealsomultiplyingthenumberof"go-to-market"orhybridchannelsinanyonemarketarea.IncontrasttoDell,HPhasuseditssalesforcetoselltolargeaccounts,outboundtelemarketingtoselltomedium-sizedaccounts,directmailwithaninboundnumbertoselltosmallaccounts,retailerstoselltostillsmalleraccounts,andtheInternettosellspecialtyitems.Staplesmarketsthroughitstraditionalretailchannel,adirect-responseInternetofaffiliatedsites.Companiesthatmanagehybridchannelsmustmakesurethesechannelsworkwelltogetherandmatcheachtargetcustomer'spreferredwaysofdoingbusiness.Customersexpectchannelintegration,characterizedbyfeaturessuchas:theabilitytoorderaproductonlineandpickitupataconvenientretaillocation；thetoreturnanonline-orderedproducttoaofretailer；thetodiscountsandpromotionaloffersbasedontotalonlineandoff-linepurchases.CircuitCityestimatedin-storepick-upsaccountedforthanhalfitsonlinesalesinaspecificofahascarefullymanageditsmultiplechannels.REI（RecreationEquipmentInc.）What'smorefrustrating:buyinghikingbootsthatcrippleyourfeet,ortryingontheperfectpaironlytofindthestoreisoutofstockinthesizeorstyleAtInc.largestconsumerwithoutdoorenthusiastscaneasilyavoidbothproblems.In90REIstoresacrossandsnugglingdeepintosleepingbags.REIstoresaredesignedtogiveanexperience,notjustsellgoods.Ifanitemisoutofstock,all4customersneeddoistapintothestore'sInternettoorderitfromREI'scustomerscanevengetclerkstoplacetheorderforthematthecheckoutcounters.REIhasbeenlaudedbyindustryanalystsfortheseamlessintegrationofitsretailstore,Website,Internetkiosks,·ordercatalogs,outlets,andtoll-freeordernumber.AndREInotonlygeneratesstore-to-Internettraffic,italsosendsInternetshoppersintoitsstores.IfacustomerbrowsesREI'ssiteandstopstoreadanREI"LearnandShare"articleonbackpacking,thesitemighthighlightanin-storepromotiononhikingboots.LikeREIthatshoppersspendsignificantlymorethansingle-channelshoppers,andthattri-channelshoppersspendevenmore.UnderstandingNeedsConsumersmaychoosethechannelstheypreferbasedonanumberoffactors:theprice,productassortment,andconvenienceofachanneloption,asorexperiential).Aswithproducts,segmentationexists,andmarketersemployingdifferenttypesofchannelsmustbeawarethatdifferentcon;umershavedifferentneedsduringthepurchaseprocess.ResearchersNunesandCespedesarguethat,inmanymarkets,buyersfallintooneoffourcategories.Habitualfrominovertime.High-valuedealbeforebuyingatthelowestpossibleprice.Variety-lovingshoppersgatherinformationinmanyadvantageofinchannel,regardlessofprice.High-involvementshoppersgatherinformationinallchannels,maketheirpurchaseinalow-costchannel,buttakeadvantageofcustomersupportfromahigh-touchchannel.Onestudyof40groceryandclothingretailersinFrance,Germany,andtheUnitedKingdomfoundthatretailersinthosecountriesserved5threetypesofshoppers:(1)Service/qualitycustomerswhocaredmostaboutthevarietyandperformanceofproductsinstoresaswellastheserviceprovided;(2)Price/valuecustomerswhomostaboutspendingtheirmoneywisely;and(3)Affinitycustomerswhoprimarilysoughtliketheyaspiredtojoin.AsFigure15.1shows,customerprofilesforthesetypesofInplacedmoreimportanceonserviceandquality,intheUnitedKingdom,affinity,andinGermany,priceandvalue.Evensametochannelsfordifferentfunctionsinmakingapurchase.Forinstance,someonemaychoosetobrowsethroughacatalogbeforevisitingastoreortakeatest-driveatadealerbeforeorderingacaronline.Consumersmayalsoseekdifferenttypesofchannelsdependingontheparticulartypesofgoodsinvolved.Someconsumersarewillingto"tradeup"toretailersofferingsuchaswatchesorCallawaygolfthesesameconsumersarealsowillingto"tradedown"todiscountretailerstobuyprivate-labelpapertowels,detergent,orvitamins.ValueNetworksAsupplychainviewofafirmseesasdestinationandamountstoalinearviewoftheflow.Thecompanyshouldfirstthinkoftheandthendesignthefromthatpoint.Thisviewhasbeencalleddemandchainplanning.Northwestern'sDonSchultzsays:"Ademandchainmanagementapproachdoesn'tjustconsumersarelookingfor,notproductsaretryingsellSchultzthatbebyanewacronym,SIVA,whichstandsforsolutions,information,value,andaccess。Anevenviewacompanyatofavaluenetwork-asystemofpartnershipsandalliancesthatafirmcreatestosource,augment,anddeliveritsofferings.Avaluenetworkincludesafirm'ssuppliersanditssuppliers'suppliers,anditsimmediatecustomersand6theirendcustomers.Thevaluenetworkincludesvaluedrelationswithotherssuchasuniversityresearchersandgovernmentapprovalagencies.Acompanyneedstoorchestratethesepartiesinordertodeliversuperiorvaluetothetargetmarket.Palm,theleadingmanufacturerofhandhelddevices,consistsofawholecommunityofsuppliersandassemblersofsemiconductorcomponents,plasticcases,LCDandaccessories;ofoff-lineandonlineresellers;of275,OOOdevelopersinthePalmcreatedoverand100hardwareadd-onsforthePalmoperatingsystemsforhandheldcomputersandsmartphones.DemandchainplanningseveralFirst,thecompanycanestimatewhethermoremoneyismadeupstreamordownstream,incaseitmightwanttointegratebackwardforward.theismoreawareofdisturbancesanywhereinthechaincosts,prices,orsuppliestochangesuddenly.Third,companiescangoonlinewiththeirbusinesspartnerstocarryonfasterandmoreaccuratecommunications,transactions,andpaymentstoreducecosts,speedupinformation,andincreaseaccuracy.Forexample,Fordnotonlymanagesnumerousalsoonmanysitesandexchangesasneedsarise.Managingthisnetworkhasrequiredcompaniestomakeincreasinginvestmentsininformationtechnology(IT)andsoftware.Firmshaveintroducedsupplychainmanagement(SCM)softwareandinvitedsuchsoftwarefirmsasSAPandOracletodesigncomprehensiveenterpriseresourceplanning(ERP)systemstomanageflow,manufacturing,resources,purchasing,andothermajorfunctionswithinaunifiedframework.Theyhopetobreakupdepartmentsilosandcarryoutcorebusinessprocessesmoreseamless!y.Inmostcases,however,companiesarestillalongwayfromtrulycomprehensiveERPsystems.Marketers,havethevaluenetworkthatlookstowardthecustomer,adoptingcustomerrelationshipmanagement(CRM)softwareandpractices.Inthefuture,theywillinandinfluencetheirupstreamactivitiesandbecomenetworkmanagers,notjustproductandcustomer7managers.营销渠道和值网络大多数生产者并不是将其产品出售个最终顾客生产者和最终顾客之间有一系列的营销中间机构执行着不同的功能这些中介机构组成了营销渠道一般来说，营销渠道是促使产品和服务顺利的被使用和消费的一整套相互依存的组织他们是一个产品或服务在生产以后经过的一系列途径从而使产品或服务经过销售到达最终使用者手中。有的中间机构（如批发商和零售商）买进产品、缺的产品所有权，然后再出售，它们被称为买卖中间商。其他一些中介机构（如经纪人、制造商代理人和销售代理人则寻找顾客有时也代表生产厂商同顾客谈判但是不去的产品所有权，它们被称为代理商。还有一些中间机构（如运输公司、独立仓库、银行和广告代理商）则支持分销活动，但他们既不取得产品所有权，也不参与买卖谈判，他们被称为辅助机构。渠道的要性营销渠道系统是公司分销渠道中的一个特别组成部分于营销渠道系统的决策是管理者面临的最重要的问题之一。在美国，分销商们赚取了最终售价的30%-50%的毛利，对比一下，广告费用通常只占到最终售价的5%-7%营销渠道实际上也是一项重要的机会成本要作用之一是将潜在的顾客转换成有利润的订单。营销渠道不仅仅是服务于市场，他们更要创造市场。渠道选择会影响其他所有的营销决策司的定价取决于它是使用大商场还是高档的专卖店司的销售力量和广告决策也取决于分销商需要公司提供多少培训和激励此外渠道决策包括对其他公司所做的相对长期的承诺以及一系列政策和程序当一个汽车制造商授权独立的经销商笑傲后其汽车的时候制造商不能第二天就买回其景小区而代之以自己的经销点但同时渠道选择本身取决于公司基于市场细分目标市场和定位考虑而制定的营销战略全面营销者们确保这些所有不同领域的营销决策综合起来创造出最大的价值。在管理中间商的时候，公司必须决定将多上精力分别用于推进和拉动战略。推动战略使用制造商销售队伍促销资金或其他方法推动中间商购进促销以及销售给最终使用者使用推进战略的情况包括在品类中品牌忠诚度较低品牌选8择在商店现场进行，出于冲动才会购买的品牌，以及商品的好处是众所周知的。在拉动战略中制造商适用广告促销和其他沟通渠道方式来吸引消费者向中间商购买产品以激励中间商订货拉动战略适用的情况包括高品牌忠诚度搞产品摄入人们能够认知不同品牌间的差异以及人们在去商店之前就选好购买哪个品牌。多年以来，制药公司仅仅针对医生和医院做广告，但在年，美国食品及药物管理局办不了电视广告指导方针辟了医药品知己到达消费者的道路。这在处于萌芽阶段的处方安眠药行业尤为明显。Sepracor公司治疗失眠的处方药的增多很大程度上源于失眠症患者的增多是制药公司在印刷品和广告上花费数十亿美元。看看司为助眠药所做的广告：一个灰绿的月亮精灵在个宁静的眠者的头周围飘舞。Sepracor2006年在消费者广告花了298美元，它的股份和销售额也因成功的战略而大增2005年制药行业在消费者广告上花费超过40亿美元10年增长超过5倍。但是，其激进的拉动战略引发了激烈的争论和国会的注意。毕竟，在激进的广告带来的巨额利润的同时也使数以千计的美国成年人面临心脏病的危险评认为新药广告导致了关注治疗症状本身而不是激发消费者去发现他们不能入眠的原（从简单的压力到严重的疾病广告的拥护者则声称在看护受到管理和医生治疗时间缩短的时代告教育了病人并且激发了他们与医生的重要对话。尽管制药行业不能回到原点，但BristolMyersSquibb公司却通过自愿在新药上市一年内不做广告而赢得了声誉。顶级营销公司如可口可乐因特尔和耐克能够技巧性的使用推进和拉动战略作为推进战略一部分的面向顾客的营销活动当被辅以用于刺激消费者需求的经过精心设计和正确实施的拉动战略时会更为有效另一方面没有一定数量的消费者感兴趣，要获得渠道的接受和支持也会十分困难。渠道发新成立公司最典型的做法就是在当地有限的市场使用现有的中间商进行销售这些中间商的数量是有限的数制造商代理人少数批发商几个零售商、少数运输公司和仓库选择最好的渠道可能不是问题问题是如何说服现有中间商为公司服务，如果公司成功了可能会进入新的市场并在其他市场内各种使用不同的渠道。在较小的市场上，公司可能直接将产品卖给零售商：在较大的市场上，则可能会通过经销商。在农村市场上，公司可能使用特许经营；在另外一些市场中，则可能通过其他的代理商来销售在一个国家里公司可能使用国际代理商在9另外一个国家，则可能与当地公司合伙。国际市场会产生独特的挑战消费者的购物习惯随国家不同而有差异很多零售商如德国的Aldi国的Tesco和西班牙的在进入一个新市场时，都在一定程度上对自身进行重新定义以使自身形象更适合当地需要和需求些不顾地理差异而固守同样销售模式的零售商，如、玛莎百货和沃尔玛在进入新市场时，有时遇到了困难。总之渠道系统的发展应视当地机会和条件潜在威胁和机会公司资源和能力以及其他因素而定。思考戴尔公司近些年来遇到的一些挑战。戴尔（Dell）戴尔公司通过电话和互联网而不是零售商直接向消费者销售产品革了个人电脑类别消费者可以定制他们想要的电脑而且因为成本被大大降低使其可以每天低价。这听起来是个成功的模式，从他诞生到现在经历了近年。但是2006年公司遇到了一系列问题导致了股价的快速下跌。首先，渐渐复苏的竞争者，例如惠普，已经缩小了他们与戴尔在生产效率和价格上的差距。其次，由于一直更关注企业市场戴尔不得不艰难的试图更有效的向消费市场销售消费者的购买方式从直接购买转向在零售店购买对戴尔是个不小的打击更致命的伤害来自于其内部过分强调效率的供应链模式积压了顾客服务的成本和质量经理们评估呼叫中心的雇员接每个电话所用的时间解决消费者感到他们的问题被忽视或者没有被适当处理的问题再者研发支出不足使新产品开发之后并且导致产品差异化也行不通。很明显，因为这些问题，戴尔来到一个岔路口，需要从本质上综合重新思考其渠道战略和营销方式。混合渠现今成功的公司也在增加市场的渠道数量或在一个市场中建立混合渠道戴尔相反惠普使用销售人员向大客户销售使用电话销售向中等客户销售使用直邮的方式向小客户销售零售商也向小客户销售同时使用互联网出售专门产品通过传统零售渠道集市反应的互联网站虚拟购物商场和数以千计的会员站点对市场进行分类。那些经营混合渠道的公司必须确保这些渠道可以很好的结合在一起且与每一个目标顾客群最为匹配。顾客期望渠道整合能有以下特点：在线订购产品在附近的连锁店拿货的能力；在附近的零售商店退回在线订购产品的能力；获得全部线上线下购买的折扣和促销优惠的权利。根据环路城（circuit）计算，2006年店内取货占在线销售量的一半10以上。以下是一家公司谨慎的管理多种渠道的案例。REI（Inc.）还有比这更令人沮丧的吗买来的徒步旅行靴伤了你的的脚或者是当你在商店看到中意的鞋时却没有你穿的尺码？在这个拥有250活跃成员的美国最大的消费者协会，热衷户外运动的人们可以避免以上这两种情况。在全美90家REI的商店里，顾客正点起瓦斯炉，扎起帐篷，美美的睡在睡袋