从英汉委婉语中透析中西文化差异

本科毕业论文第1页共15页IntroductionEuphemism,anappropriatelanguageformcreatedforperfectcommunicativeeffectandanimportantwaytocoordinateinterpersonalrelationship,isacommonlinguisticphenomenonexistinginpeople'suseoflanguage.EuphemismappearsfirstinShiJing,soithasalonghistory.ChinesescholarChenWangdaodefines“euphemism”andstudiesitfromtheperspectiveofrhetoricinTheOriginofRhetoric.Inthe1970sand1980s,affectedbytheforeignsociallinguistictheory,scholarswhoworkonthestudyofsociallinguisticsbecomeinterestedinthespecialsocialfunctionofeuphemism.InSociolinguistics,ChenYuandiscussestheprofoundhistoricalandpsycho-socialbackgroundofeuphemism,revealingitssocialessenceofavoidingmentioningthoseunpleasantthingsorphenomena.InTheEuphemisminModernChineseLanguagepublishedinChineseLanguageLearning,ShuDingfangattemptstodescribeanddiscussthestructureandresearchscopeofeuphemisminmodernChineselanguagefromtheangleofmodernlinguisticsforthefirsttime.Thestudyofeuphemismatabroadalsohasalonghistory.Inthe1580s,theEnglishwriterGeorgeBluntcreatedtheword“euphemism”andpresentedthefollowingdefinition:agoodorfavorableinterpretationofabadword.ReferringtothehistoricalculturalbackgroundofAmericansociety,AmericanlinguistMenkenprobesintothereasonwhyseveralhundredeuphemismsappearandbecomepopularinTheAmericanLanguagepublishedin1936.ThebookADictionaryofEuphemismandOtherDoubletalkwrittenbyEnglishlinguistHughRawsonmanifeststheresearchachievementsabouteuphemismofEnglishandAmericanlinguists.Thebooknotonlyreviewsthestudyhistoryofeuphemism,butalsomakesanextensivediscussionofthecharacteristics,definitionandclassificationofit.Euphemism,asoneformoflanguagewhichcontainsaffluentculturalconnotations,mustbethereflectionofaspecificculture.Euphemismscreatedindifferentculturalbackgroundsreflectdifferentculturalconnotationsandembodiestheattitudetowardslifeandlife-styleofpeoplelivinginthisspecificlanguagegroup.Thisthesisaimstocontributetoasuccessfulcross-culturalcommunicationbyhelpingpeopleunderstandtheappropriateinterpretationofeuphemisms.EuphemismandCultureLanguageandCultureCultureownsdiversekindsofcarriers,suchasart,language,literatureandsoon.Language,asthemostimportantcarrier,isintimatelyrelatedtoculture.Thecomeintobeingandinheritanceofcultureareduetotheappearanceanddevelopmentoflanguage.Thereisnoculturewithoutlanguageandnolanguagewithoutculture.Atthesametime,cultureaffectslanguageallthetime,makinglanguagebecomemoreaccuratetoadapttothedevelopmentandchangeofculture.Thecreationofculturecannotexistwithoutthefunctionoflanguage,andtheaccumulationofcultureisalsoconservedthroughlanguage.Asaresult,languageandculturearesupplementarytoeachotheranddependentoneachotherforexistence.Languageitself,asthecarrierandasignificantcompositionofculture,bearsthespecialimprintofculture.Althoughlanguageistheoutcomeofthedevelopmentofsocialculture,languageplaysanessentialroleintheformationanddevelopmentofculture.Thelanguagepeopleusereflectstheirrealthoughtstowardswhattheytalkabout.Language,fromabroadsense,symbolicallystandsforapeopleandmakesuptheirhistoricalandculturalbackgrounds.Likeamirror,languagereflectsthecultureofapeopleandrevealstheirwaysofliving.Cultureisthekeystoneoflanguage.Anykindoflanguagecannotsurviveanddevelopwithoutthesocialcultureenvironment,whichlanguagerelieson.Toacertaindegree,socialculturerestrictslanguage'sevolutionaswellasperfection.Languageitselfhasaninfluenceonpeople'swaysofthinkingandconsequentlyimpactstheculture.However,affectedbyculturegreatly,languagechangeswithcultureundergoingindevelopmentandchange.Justinthecontemporaryworld,millionsofthenewwordsinvariousfieldsprovethatrichandcolorfulculturesmakeallsortsoflanguagescomeintobeing.EuphemismandCultureTheword“euphemism”originatedfromtheGreek.InGreek,theprefix“eu”means“good”withtheroot“pheme”meaning“speech”.Asaresult,theliteralmeaningofeuphemismis“tospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner”(NeamanandSilver1.Euphemismisafrequentlyusedfigureofspeech,andthereareotherdefinitionsofit.AllanandBurridgepresentsthefollowing:“aeuphemismisusedasanalternativetoadispreferredexpression,inordertoavoidpossiblelossofface:eitherone'sownfaceor,throughgivingoffence,thatoftheaudience,orofsomethirdparty”(AllanandBurridge18.ForthereasonthattheformationofEnglishandChineseeuphemismshasvariousways,euphemismscanbedivideddifferentlyinaccordancewithdifferentstandards.TheclassificationemployedinthisthesisisfromHughRawson,who,in1981,classifiedeuphemismsintonegativeeuphemismsandpositiveeuphemismsinhisbookADictionaryofEuphemismsandOtherDoubletalkfromtheaspectofsemantics.Thenegativeeuphemisms,whicharecloselyrelatedtotabooedwords,alsocanbecalledtraditionaleuphemisms.Whatthenegativeeuphemismsandtabooedwordsexpressarethesame.Iflanguages,likesex,disease,physicalandpsychologicaldefects,areexpressedinadirectway,theyarecalledtabooedwords,givingpeopleasenseofvulgarityandrudeness.Butifthelanguagespresentedabovearedeliveredinanindirectway,theyarecalledeuphemisms,grantingpeopleafeelingofconnotation,eleganceandpoliteness.Forexample,peopleinwesterncountriessubstitute“sex”with“sleepwith”or“gotobedwith”anduse“plainlooking”or“ordinarylooking”toreplace“ugly”.Thepositiveeuphemisms,alsonamedasstylisticeuphemisms,havenorelationshipwithtabooedwords.Infact,positiveeuphemismsareanalogoustothewordswithameaningofcompliment.“Ittendstoinflateandmagnifythewordmeaning,makingtheeuphemizedseemaltogethergranderandmoreimportantthantheyreallyare”(HughRawson1.Inordertoshowpoliteness,respectorstriveforcooperation,peopleapplybeautifulwordstoexpressthingswhichareunpleasantbutnottabooed.Inthepastdecades,positiveeuphemismshavebeenappliedinsuchareasaseducation,occupationandunemployment.Therearemanyeuphemismsforsomeoccupationswithlowersocialstatus.Agardenerwhoshavestreesandflowerscanbecalled“alandscapearchitect”.Agarbagecollectorisoftensaidtobe“asanitationengineer”andafileclerkwouldbeveryhappytoknowthatsheis“aresearchconsultant”.Theconceptofcultureissobroadthatdefiningtheword“culture”seemstobeaverydifficultmatterforus.Differentpeopleoftenseethesameobjectindifferentlights.Manyscholarshavedefinedit.LinellDavisdefinescultureas“thetotalaccumulationofbeliefs,customs,values,behaviors,institutionsandcommunicationpatternsthatareshared,learnedandpasseddownthroughthegenerationsinanidentifiablegroupofpeople”(24.AccordingtoGoodenough,cultureis“whateveritisonehastoknowandbelieveinordertooperateinamanneracceptabletoitsmembers.Culture,beingwhatpeoplehavetolearnasdistinctfromtheirbiologicalheritage,mustconsistof“theendproductoflearning:knowledge”(167.Theculturecoversabroadspectrumandcontainsallthephenomenaoftheuniverse.Allthethingscreatedbypeopleandrelatedtoexperience,knowledge,scienceandtechnologyaswellaseducationandlanguage,canbecalledculture.Euphemismisalanguageusedpervasivelyinourdailylife.ItisnotonlyalanguagephenomenoninbothEnglishandChineseculture,butalsoisakindofsocialculture.Languageandculturearecloselyrelatedtoeachother.Euphemism,asoneformoflanguage,isalsogreatlyaffectedandshapedbycultureintermsoftheorigin,growthandusage.Simultaneously,euphemismisareflectionofculture.Euphemismbearstheweightofabundantculturalconnotationforthereasonthatitdeeplyrootsinthesoilofapeople'ssocialculture.Itishardforpeopletomakesenseoftheeuphemismsifpeopledonothaveanotionofacountry'sculture.ShaoZhihongpointsoutthathe[PatrickHartwell]considerseuphemismsas“anaturalpartofthesocialworldofwords”andbelievestheytellus“agooddealaboutthevaluesofaculture”(305.DifferentCulturalImplicationsReflectedinEnglishandChineseEuphemismsLanguageisthecarrierofcultureandamirrorreflectingsocialculture.Forthisreason,euphemism,asaspecialformoflanguage,mustbethereflectionofaspecificculture.Languagedecidesanation'sculturalfeatures,whichgivesrisetothephenomenonthatEnglishandChineseeuphemismswithoutexceptionwillreflecttheculturaldifferencesoftwonationsaswell.3.1DifferentConceptsofValueIntermofconceptofvalue,westernpeoplelivefortheirself-satisfaction.Oncetheycannotgetthematerialinsurance,theyimmediatelythinkthattheirlifewillfallapartandthattheycannotbementionedinthesamebreathwiththeirfriendsbecausetheybelievetheyareinferiortothem.While,deeplyaffectedbyConfucianism,Chinesecontendthatthevalueoflifeliesinthecontributiontheydointheirlivesratherthanthematerialabundance.Euphemismsfor“poverty”inEnglishandChinesereflecttheirdifferentconceptsofvalue.Theword“poverty”inEnglishisaterriblewordwhichmeans“thereisneitherpowernorsocialstatus”.Inthewesterncommercialsocieties,peopleholdthebeliefthatmoneytalksandadmitpovertydirectlyincursdisdain.Althoughthesocietythinkshighlyoftheviewthateveryoneisequalandhashisowncivilright,thephenomenonthatthegapbetweenthepoorandtherichkeepswideningstillexists.However,thereisnopersonwhowouldliketoacknowledgethattheydonothaveenoughmoneytoaffordthemanormallife.Therefore,peopleinWestsparenoefforttorefrainfrommentioning“poverty”forthesakeofthepoorthemselves.Thefollowingexamplewillshowushowwesternpeopleavoid“poverty”:“IusedtothinkIwaspoor.”Shewrote.“ThentheytoldmeIwasnotpoor,Iwasneedy.Thentheysaiditwasself-defeatingtothinkofmyselfasneedy,thatIwasculturallydeprived.Thentheytoldmedeprivedwasabadthing,thatIwasunderprivileged.Thentheytoldmeunderprivilegedwasoverused,thatIwasdisadvantaged.Istilldonothaveadime—butIhaveagreatvocabulary.”(WilliamandMary229Intheshortsectionofspeechabove,therearefoureuphemisms—“needy”,“culturallydeprived”,“underprivileged”and“disadvantaged”,whichhavethesimilarmeaningas“poor”.Allthesewordsarejustsomeindirectwayswesternpeopleusetoavoidsayingtheword“poor”becausemostpeopleregardthepossessionofmaterialwealthasthesymboltomeasurepeople'sabilityofsurvival.Therearealsomanyothereuphemismsfor“poverty”:“hardupformoney”,“lesswelloff”,“downonone'sluck”,“inaawkwardfinancialsituation”,“inreducedcircumstances”,“badlyoff”,“thehave-nots”,“manofmodestmeans”,“negativesaver”andsoon.Bycontrast,beingpoordoesnotseemtobeahorriblethinginChina.Chinesepeopleembracetheperspectivethatthoughoneispoor,hehasloftyaspirationsandbelievethatpovertycanexercisepeople'sperseveranceandcharacter.Nevertheless,beingpoorisnotathingtobeproudof,sothereareonlyafeweuphemismsfortheword“poverty”inChinese.ThewordsusedmostfrequentlyinChineseare“揭不开锅”,“手头不便”,“拮据”and“囊中羞涩”.Thesmallquantityofeuphemismsfor“poverty”mayberelevanttothereasonthatthewordinChineseisnottabooedasthatinEnglish.Specificculturecreatesspeciallanguage.Chinatodayisacountrybrimmingwithrichculturalelements,whichmakestheneweuphemismsfor“poverty”emerge.Withtheimplementationofreformandopening-upandtherapidgrowthofeconomy,millionairesandevenbillionairesappearinChina.Theword“富翁”soundsgood,butthemeaningoftheword“负翁”hasanentirelyoppositemeaning.Somepeopleofthesalariatarecalled“月光族”becausetheyneverhavesurplussalariesattheendofthemonth.DifferentConceptsofRankChinaisanationofcourtesywithaculturalheritagerunningseveralthousandyearsandanationwhichattachesimportancetoConfuciancultureandfeudalpatriarchsystem.However,democracy,referringtofreedom,equalityandhumanright,isthemainideaofwesternpeople.Euphemismsfor“addressforms”reflectthedifferentsocialvaluesofrankinEnglish-speakingcountriesandChinaandalsoshowtherelationshipamongpeople.PeopleinWesthaveeveryconfidenceinthebeliefthatallmenareequal.Thisviewstressesthatcitizensareequalbothinlawsandmentality,whichmeansthereisnoruletojudgepeoplewhethertheyarenobleorpoor.Consequently,westernpeoplelaymoreemphasisonindividuality,andtheyarenotsoconsciousoftheconceptoffamilyhierarchyasChinesetoshowtheirrespectforseniority.Nomatterwhatpeople'ssocialstatusare,theycangetalongwitheachotherlikefriendsandcalltheirnamesonafirst-namebasis.Inwesternfamilies,childrenusuallycalltheirparents'namesinsteadof“father”and“mother”whentheygrowup.However,theparentsdonotblamethemforthechangeoftitles;onthecontrary,theyfeelthattherelationshipbetweenthemandtheirchildreniscozy.Furthermore,theconceptofaddressformsinWestisrelativelygeneralandambiguous.Menwhoareofthesamegenerationofchildren'sparentsarecalled“uncle”,womenonthegenerationbasearecalled“aunt”andtheirchildrenarecalled“cousin”nomatterwhatgendertheyare.Thephenomenonthatfamilymembersaddresseachotherdirectlyregardlessofthefamilyhierarchyisacommonoccurrenceinwesternfamilieswhileitisnotacceptedinanold-fashionedChinesefamily.ThereasonliesinthattheaddressformsinEnglishdonotbelongtothescopeoflanguagetaboos.Onthecontrary,Chinesepeoplepaymuchattentiontothearrangementofrank,etiquetteandtheorderofseniorityandinferiority,whichdirectlyreflectedinthe“addressforms”.Inancienttimes,ordinarypeoplewereforbiddentoaddressdirectlythenamesofemperorsandgovernmentofficials.Theyhadtouseotherwordstoreplacethename;otherwise,theywouldbepunishedbecauseofshowingnorespect.Forinstance,inTangDynasty,thenameofemperoriscalled“李世民”.Inordertoavoidtheword“世”,peopleuse“代”totaketheplaceof“世”,substitute“世”with“人”andshortentheword“观世音”to“观音”whentheywriteorcommunicate.Titletaboosderivefromtheconceptoftheancientpatriarchalclansystem.Withthechangesoftimes,thisphenomenonhasbeennolongerinexistence,butsometitletabooscontinuetobeusedeventoday.Nowadays,peoplealwaysaddressotherpeopleinawayofaddingthetitleofaposttoshowrespectbetweenthesuperiorandthesubordinate,theyoungandtheoldandevenpeers,suchas“张局长”,“刘书记”and“赵老师”.Whenitcomestotherelationshipbetweenfriends,peopleusuallyaddressfriendsbyadding“小”or“老”forthesakeofintimacy,suchas“小王”and“老李”.InaChinesefamily,parentsalwayseducatetheirkidsthattheyarenotallowedtoaddresstheeldersdirectly.Theyoungergenerationisobligedtocalltheoldergenerationintermsofkinshiptoexpresstheiresteem,suchas“爷爷”,“奶奶”,“爸爸”,“妈妈”,“叔叔”,“阿姨”,“舅舅”,“舅妈”.Ifpeopleaddressotherpeople'snamesdirectly,theywillbeconsideredasuneducatedandimpolite.本科毕业论文第9页共15页3.3DifferentConceptsofReligionChristianity,averyprevailingreligioninWest,hasalong-termandprofoundeffectonthesociety,deemingthateverybodyisguiltyandlayingstressonaperson'simperfectionandinherenteviltendency.InChina,peoplemainlybelieveinBuddhismandTaoism,whichguidepeopletoestablishperfectpersonalityandevenbeBuddhaandimmoralbymeansofenhancingtheirself-cultivation.Eachlanguagehasitsownreligiousfaith,whichleadstothedifferentusesofeuphemismsfor“death”.InWest,people,fromheadsofstatetothecommonpeople,almostallofthembelieveinChristianitywhichisdominantamongthediversereligions.Christiansdeemthatthevalueofhumanbodyisinferiortothesoulforthereasonthatthefreshwilldieeventually,butthesoulisimmortal.Theysticktothefaiththattheirsoulswillenterintotheheavenratherthanhellafterdeathiftheymakegreateffortstodospiritualpractice.Affectedbythisfaith,theyareconfrontedwithdeathcalmly.Asaconsequence,alargeamountofEnglisheuphemismsfor“death”comefromtheBibleandgiveexpressiontothebasicChristiandoctrinethatpeople'slivesgivenbyGodaredestinedtogothroughsin,indulgenceandexpiation,andpeoplecanonlygetsavedintheotherworldafterexpiatingthesins.Forexample,the“death”iscalled“toreturntodust/earth”becauseGodcreatespeoplewithclay;“topaythedebtofnature”isastatementof“death”forthereasonthatpeoplearebornwithsinsandtheirdeathistoatoneforsins.Godisthemasteroftheearth,sopeoplehaveto“becalledtoGod”or“toanswerthefinalsummons”afterdeath.Othereuphemismsfor“death”contain“gothewayofallfresh”,“togotoabetterworld”,“beasleepintheArmsofGod”,“gotoone'sfinalreward”andsoon.Alltheseeuphemismsfor“death”aretherealportrayalofperfectliveswesternpeoplebelievein.ChinesepeopleneverhaveaunifiedfaithforChinaisacountrywithmanyreligions.BuddhismandTaoismmakealargedifferencetoChineseculture.Buddhism,spreadingintoChinasinceTangDynasty,istosetpeoplefreefromtheeternalcycle本科毕业论文第10页共15页ofbirthanddeath.Buddhismadvocatesspiritualpracticetoliveuptothehighestrealm,whichiscalled“圆寂”or“灭度”inChinese.ThattheBuddhistsdiepeacefullywithagestureofsittinginmeditationiscalled“坐化”,whichindicatesthattheyarenotindreadofdeath.OthereuphemismsforBuddhists'death,whicharetoonumeroustobelisted,include“升天”,“殉道”and“登莲界”.Taoism,anotherreligionChinesepeoplehaveadeepfaithin,aimstoliveforevertobeimmortal,soitconsiderspeople'sdeathas“仙逝”,“仙游”,“仙去”andsoon.Inaddition,theviewthatpeoplecanbesupernaturalbeingsridingonwhitecraneswhentheypassaway,resultsintheappearanceof“骑鹤”,“化鹤”or“鹤化”.Taoismdeniesthatthereisnodifferencesexistingintheworldandbelievesthataperson'slifeisjustfrombirthtodeath,sowehavetheexpressionsof“物化”,“隐化”and“遁化”.Alltheexamplesabovereflectafactthatthediversityofreligiousbeliefisboundtogeneratethediversityoflanguage.3.4DifferentConceptsofTraditionPeopleinWestgenerallyavoidaskingothers'ageforthereasonthatageisasensitivetopicintheireyes.Onthecontrary,peopleinChina,whoarefamiliarwiththetraditionalcustomsofrespectingtheelderly,donothavemanytaboosinage.However,tobeoldwillsurelyleadtodeath.Asaresult,eachnationtakesfulladvantageofeuphemismstopreventembarrassmentsof“oldage”fromhappening.Westernculturepaysmuchattentiontoyouth,energyandcreativity.Theword“Old”isaderogatoryterminwesternculture,whichresultsinthephenomenonthatpeopleareawareofshunningthewordespeciallyonaccountoftheseriousagingofpopulationinwesternsocieties,theincreasingproblemsofsocialsecurityandabilitytoprovidefortheagedaswellastheadvocationoffamilystructurewithDINKlifestyle.Westernpeopleareafraidofbecomingoldandtheirfearforbecomingoldhasreachedthedegreeofputtinganendtotheuseoftheword“old”.Theymeditatedeeplyonborrowingotherwordstoexpresstheword“old”inatactfulway.“Old本科毕业论文第11页共15页people”areaddressedas“seniorcitizens”,“seasonedmen”,“well-preservedmen”,“theadvancedinage”andthelike.Theyallgetcomplimentedfortheir“longerlife”.Eventhe“oldpeople'shome”canbecalledas“nursinghome”,“homeforadults”,“resthome”and“adultcommunities”.Westernpeoplecherishthedreamofnevergrowingold,sotheycallthe“oldwomen”as“distinguishedwomen”andthe“oldmen”as“distinguishedmen”.Inaddition,theeuphemismsfor“oldpeople”include“goldenage”,“sunsetyears”,“themature”and“theelderly”.Intoday'ssocietywheretheyoungageisadvocated,peopleattachmoreandmoreimportancetotheaddressofoldmen,whichcertainlygivesrisetotheincreaseofeuphemismsfor“old”.Theeuphemismsfor“old”inChinaarenotasabundantasthoseinWest.Onceinawhile,peoplecanseethestatementinwrittenform,suchas“华发”,“黄昏恋”and“夕阳红”,butpeoplearenotverysensitivetotheword“old”.Chinesepeopleholdtheviewthatbeingoldisthehonoroffamilyandsociety.InChina,peoplearedeeplyconvincedthatitisatraditionalvirtuetorespecttheoldandtakegoodcareofchildren.Asaresult,peopleadvocatethepowerandstatusoftheold.Althoughthetraditionalfamilystructureoffourgenerationsunderoneroofhasbeenbrokenupinthemodernsociety,theoldgenerationisstillthecorememberofafamily.InChineseculture,theword“old”hasbeenequippedwiththemeaningofknowledge,maturityandreliance,whicharereflectedinChinesebymeansofsuchexpressionsas“老当益壮”,“老成持重”and“老将出马,一个顶俩”.PeopleinChinaarenotindreadoftalkingabouttheage,naturallyresultinginthephenomenonthattheuseoftheword“old”inthesocietyisnotconsideredasataboo.Peoplecall“theold”“您老”and“老人家”toshowasenseofrespect.Theword“old”inChinacanalsoconveytheconnotationofseniorityandexperience,whichcanbeseenfrom“老师傅”,“老教授”and“老总”.Furthermore,Chinesepeopleusuallyputtheword“old”afterfamilynametoaddresstheoldpeoplewhohaveahighvirtueandagloriousnametoexpresstheirrespect,suchas“陈老”,and“李老”.ConclusionEuphemism,bothacommonlinguisticphenomenonandasocialculture,iscreatedbydifferentculturalbackgrounds,moralitiesandvaluesandreflectsdifferentculturalconnotationsandcharacteristics.Atthesametime,itisessentialforpeopletorealizetheimportanceoftheappropriateinterpretationandapplicationofeuphemismsincross-culturalcommunication.Thisthesisrevealsthedifferentculturalimplicationsintheaspectsoftheconceptofvalue,rank,religionandtraditionreflectedinEnglishandChineseeuphemismsbycomparingdifferenteuphemisms.Euphemismsfor“poor”inEnglishandChinesetellusthatwesternpeoplehaveastrongerdesireformoneythanChinesepeople,andeuphemismsfor“addressforms”giveussomeinformationthatChinaisrigidlyhierarchicalwhilewesterncountriesaredemocraticandfree.Inaddition,euphemismsfor“death”showusthedifferentreligiousculturespeopleineachcountrybelieveinandeuphemismsfor“old”explainthereasonwhytheword“old”istabooedinEnglishbutadvocatedinChinese.AllthecomparisonsbetweenEnglishandChineseeuphemismssuggestthattheusageandgoalofthemareroughlysimilarinthatbothofthemusenicewordstoreplacethevulgarthingswhicharelikelytogivepeopleasenseofembarrassment,tomakethelanguagemoreelegant,politeandacceptable.However,thecomparisonalsoshowsthatbackgroundsfortheusageofEnglishandChineseeuphemismsdonotgoalltheway,sometimesevenaretotallydifferent.Euphemismsareadoptedbypeopletorendertheirspeechesandmannerstoberational,topromotet