《现代英语词汇学》复习

英语词学复习的内：.、考试题形式分为：Ⅰ.选择题(20：完全是考书中的理论与例子的结合,即知识点等。Ⅱ.填空（：考定义概念。Ⅲ.（）习语英汉：教材中汉语部分idioms:习语的特点Ⅳ分论述题第三章为主Ⅴ.树形图（据上下关系图）分)：第二、六章二、教材内容简介陆国强编著现代英语词汇学版上海外语教育出版社，7第一章词的述；第二章词的构和词构成方式；第三章词的据；第四章词的义特征第五章词义变化；第六章词的义分类第七章词的想与搭；第八章英语语；第九章美国语；第十章词的使用和理解；第十一章词汇衔接；第十二章词汇衔接和语篇连贯。教学内容是:词形结构构词法,词法特点及分类,词义转换英文习语,美式英语,词汇及文学风,英语词汇,词汇学研究方法及其新的发展方向等方面的理论与研究动态。《现代英语词汇学教材以现代语言理论为指导以英语词汇为研究对象主要内容有单词的结构、构词法、单词的意义及词义关系、英语词汇的构成、词义的历史演变语及词典知识程可以使学生比较系统地掌握英语词汇的知识，比较深入地了解英语词汇的现状及历史演变过程能对现代英语词汇发展的趋势和所出现的现象作出分析和解释提高运用英语的能力本课程特别强调和重视研究生广泛阅读英语词汇学、语言学、语义学、词源学方面的书籍，以教师精讲、学生宽学为目的。本课程的教学目的,在于指导学生用现代语义学和语法学的有关理论分析研究现代英语词汇现揭示现代英语词汇规律。要求学生通过英汉词汇的对比研究,探讨英语词汇教学规,指导英语语言实不断提高对现代英语词汇的理解,应用和研究能力。汪榕培英语词汇学研究海外语教育出版社，年月第一版

王文斌英语词汇语义学江教育出版社，年月第一版汪榕培、卢晓娟编著语词汇学教程海外语教育出版社，199710第1.汪榕培主编英语词汇学高级教程海外语教育出版社，11张韵斐:《英语词汇学》北京师范大学出版社汪榕培《英语词汇学教程读本》上海外语教育出版社1.R.VLinguisticPerspectives.London:&Unwin.2.R.&M.McCarthy,(1988),VTeaching.Longman.教学手段：采用多媒体教学本课程要求学生能够比较全面较系统地了解现代英语词汇学这一领域的一些最主要最有影响的语言学理论能够运用词汇学理论去分析和解决词汇学习中的一些问题。通过学习，学生应该掌握以下具体方面的知识。三、复习内容Introduction部分这门课算哪一种学科的分支isabranchoflinguistics.和那些重要的学科建立了联系1)MorphologySemantics4)Etymology5)研究lexicology的两大方法1)approach:历时语言学2)approach:共时语言学e.g.wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？Woman的词义的变化是Narrowingorspecialization第一章词的概；1．识记：词的定义2．声音与意义识记：声音与意义的关系3．声音与拼写识记：读音与拼写不一致的原因4．词汇识记词汇的含义5．词汇的分类识记：词汇的分类原则；基本词汇的特点；四类外来语词的特点。领会：基本词汇及本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性What?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。1)Awordaminimalfreeformoflanguage;2)Asoundunityagivensound3)aunitofmeaning;4)aformthatcanaloneinasentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释词的分类（classificationa）

词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？1)wordscomplexwords单音节词例子：e.g.aresimple多音节词例子：e.g.misfortune,blackmailmanagement可以次划分为manage和可以次划分为mis-和fortune次划分为black和mailWhatbetweensoundandmeaning?1)Thereis‘nologicalrelationshipbetweenthesoundandactualthing.e.g.dog.cat2)Thebetweenconventional.3)Inlanguagesthesamecanberepresenteddifferentsounds.Whatbetweensoundandform?1)ThewrittenformofanaturallanguageiswrittenoforalthewrittenformshouldagreetheoralasEnglish2)Thisisfairlytrueofinitsearliesti.e.Old3)Withofthelanguage,moredifferencesbetweentheWhatarechangescausesillogicalirregularitybetweensoundandform?1)reasonforthisisthatEnglishalphabetwasfromwhichdoesnothavealettertosoundthelanguagesothatsomelettersmustdoubledutyworkincombination.2)reasonisthathaschangedrapidlyoveryears,andsomecasesthetwohavedrawnapart.3)Athirdreasonthatsomeofthedifferencesbytheearlyscribes.4)FinallytheisanimportantofenrichingEnglish要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1)influenced2)3)scribes4)borrowing你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一的例子有哪些？e.g.(L),fiesta,eureka(Gr),外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘andform’不一致。WhatVocabularyreferstototalofinalanguage,itcanstandforallwordsinperiod.Vocabularytoallofgivenbook,agivenandthewordsbyanofWords本课的一个重点)Whatclassificationofwords?Howtoclassifyinlinguistics?

criteria:1)Byoffrequency2)Bynotion3)ByoriginByuseof可划分为：1)ThestockBynotion可划分为：）2)wordContentarenotional(Contentwords的别称)wordsarealsoknownwords,formwords.(words的别称)wordscharacteristicofstock,stabilityRobertson,etal(1957),*theninebe,have,it,ofthe,will,youWhatareofstock?1)Allnationalcharacter2)3)Productivity4)Polysemy5)要把握住All’的,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通的词稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？e.g.man,woman,fire,water…e.g.machine,o,telephone…e.g.bow,,Stabilityisrelative,not根据词的usefrequency划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作Nonevocabulary,非基本词有几大特点？或者是几大分类？1)Terminologye.g.algebra2)e.g.line()3)Slangsmoky,()4)Argote.g.persuader5)Dialectalwordse.g.(AusE=)(6)Archaismse.g.wilt(will)7)Neologisms()beaver是girl的slang表达方式，但是二者之间存在着StylisticdifferenceWhichlargeramongEnglishwordswords?AnswerwordsWhatnativewords?Answer(1)Byorigin,Englishcanbeclassifiedintowords(2)wordswordstoBritaininthefifthbytheGermanthetheJutes,Anglo-Saxon(3)WordsofAnglo-Saxonin,amountingtoroughlyto60,000,buttheyformtheofstockatcore

of什么叫borrowed(1)wordsoverforeignlanguagesareaswordswordsinsimple(2)ItestimatedthatEnglishconstitute80percentoftheEnglishvocabulary(3)TheEnglishlanguagehasdebts.Insomeofborrowed.什么叫Denizens?wordsborrowedinthepastnowareintoEnglishInothertheyhavetotheEnglishwayofandportfrom(L).‘Denizens’的例子都要记：Portfrom(L),cupfromfromskiptafromskyrta(ON),changefromfromporc(F).什么叫Translation-loansTranslation-loansarewordsformmaterialintheEnglishlanguagebutonpatternstakenfromanotherlanguage,‘longtimenoseefromhaojiumeijian(Ch)什么叫Semantic-loans?wordsofthisarenotborrowedwithreferencetoform,But,inotherEnglishborrowedanewforanexistingwordinthelanguage,suchastheworddream,whichoriginallymeant’joy’‘music’,anditsmodernmeaningwasborrowedlaterfromNorse.6．英语词的形成与发展1)印欧语系的谱系关系识记：印欧语系的主要分支以及分支的主要现代语言。2)英语词汇发展的历史回顾识记：英语词汇发展的三个历史阶段：古英语词汇、中古英语词汇和现代英语词汇及其特点。3)当代英语词汇发展的状况识记：当代英语词汇发展的现状。b)领会：词汇发展的主要原因。4)词汇发展的方式识记：英语词汇发展的三个主要方式：创造新词、旧词新义、借用外来语词。领会：各种方式在现代英语词汇发展中的地位和作用TheofthevocabularyTheIndo-EuropeanLanguageFamilyItassumedthathasapproximatelyit5,000)languagescanbegroupedroughly300ontheofintheirstockgrammar.(重点系划分标准）WhatcriteriatodivideThe:1.basisofsimilaritiesinstock2.重点)Thecomprises选择题内容：)

Prussian,Lithuanian,,Czech,Bulgarian,Slovenian‘Indo-European’两大分支：1.Easternset2.WesternsetBalto-Slavic,Indo-Iranian,Albanianset:Celtic,ItalicHellenic,InwesternGreekisthefromCeltic：Scottish,Irish,Welsh,ThefiveSpanish,French,ItalianbelongtoItalic.TheGermanicfamilyconsiststhefourLanguages:DanishSwedish,whicharegenerallyScandinavianthereDutch,FlemishWithVikings’invasion,manyScandinavianwordscameItthatwordsoforiginhaveinEnglish.Englishhasvocabularyof50,000towords.ItwasahighlylanguagelikeGerman.重点句:ModernEnglishestablishmentofin古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于(scripts古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了(scripts)Soundform真正达到统一是在什么时期？formreachedtheirin(Modernperiod)如果从词汇变化的角度而言，ModernEnglish又可以细划分为earlyperiod,period.*代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期（重要的选择或填空内容）EarlyEnglishinModernEnglish有什么样的外来语的进入？ThewordsEnglishinearlymodernEnglishperiod现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另外一个原因是TheofModerninvocabularyalsoarisesfrom(Colonization)TheEnglishlanguagehasevolvedfromatolanguage(重要选择或填空内容)GrowthofEnglishVocabularysourcesof:1)Theoftechnology2)Social,changes;3)TheofculturesModesof2)semantic3)（还包括外来词的Semantic）Elevation,extension,narrowing,外来词可以被称作borrowedwords,因此又可以被称作.

重点句：borrowedare.恢复古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色RevivingcontributesgrowthofEnglishvocabularyquiteThisofEnglish.英语发展present是在英语的哪一个阶段完成的？答案：ModernEnglishperiod文艺复兴时期，恰逢英语发展的哪个阶段答案：EarlyModernEnglish在英语发展过程在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？French,EnglishMiddleEnglish出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？答案：MiddleDutch在英语发展的某一个阶段，有一种语言进入英语，它一共带来了个词汇，这种语言是什么？答案：Dutch据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少答案：to们的来源是(tongue)第二次世界大战以后量外来词进入英语中jackets,,这些词属于英语词汇发展的PresentdayEnglishVocabulary注意：第二章出大题的内容无非就是请简述印欧语系的发展与组成。English和Middle最大的distinction存在于哪一个方面?答案：OldEnglishalanguageoffullendings,MiddleEnglishofleveledendings.文艺复兴时期两种文化得到了复兴英语词汇的丰富具有什么样的影响答案：Greek某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段答案：ModernEnglish十六世纪，有一种新工业出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响，这是哪一种答案：这导致soundand出现,出现第二章词的结和词的构成式；词的结1．词素识记：词素的概念2．词素变识记：词素变体的概念3．词素的类领会：词素、自由词素、自由词根、黏附词素、黏附词根、词缀、派生词缀、屈折词缀、前缀和后缀之间的相互关系。4．词根和干领会：词根和词干的区别运用：运用本章所学的知识分析英语词的结构。

Theunitinto(morphemes)TheminimalformtheEnglishto(word)Inpluralformsomeofwordswillinternalthisinternalvowelis(allomorphs)Deer复数没有变还是deer,复数没有变还sheep,因此这种变化被称作derivation)名词解释::TheminimalinaareknownasInotherwords,themorphemesis’thesmallestfunctioningunitincompositionofwordsAllomorphs:Thealternativeasallomorphs,morphemeofplurality{-s}hasofallomorphsindifferentsounde.g.inbags,matchesItcanberealizedbyaninternalvowelasinman-men,orasindeer-deer,fish-fish简答题：whatof?(答简答题时名词解释)答案：Freebound:1)Freemorphemesofmorphemesareconsideredbefree.2)haveincanusedgrammaticalin3)withrootasofthemofsinglewords,asofofsingle4)roots.bound1)whichcannotoccurasseparatebound..2)boundformwords.3)Boundincludetwoboundaffixaffix分为两类:inflectionalderivationalInflectionalaffixes:Affixestotheofgrammaticalareinflectional,inflectionalmorphemes.Derivationalaffixes:1)derivationalaffixesaffixesaddedtowords.2)affixesbedividedsuffixes.root:arootformofwhichcannotfurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.2)whetherfreeorgenerallythemainofinaword3)a’rootisthatpartofwordformthatremainswhenallinflectionalderivationalaffixeshavebeenremovedstem:1)stemmayofsinglerootinironorofrootinalikehandcuff.2)Itcanberootmorphemeplusormoreaffixationalmorphemesasinmouthful,

3)Therefore,stemcanbeasformtowhichaffixesofanycanbeadded.问题和有一个最大的区别在哪里?(答案：abeaformtoaffixesanykindbe问题：请加以区别下面两个词的特征:,dict请加以理论的分析?Bothtonationroot,whichfunctionaloneasentence,Nationaroot,hascompleteattachedtoitareasaroot,stillDictisaboundroot,whichcannotalonegrammaticallyfundamentalofhastocombinewiththenewwords,forexample,,contradiction.问题：分析下面一句话:Heismuchclevererthananyinthetooheadsone.请从构词角度分析以上的例子,,(-er:inflectional)(goodwell的特殊变化)Itallomorphofwell.segmentEnglishlanguagegrammaticallybeintofiveranks:a.sentenceb.clausethephrased.e.morphemeTheminimumgrammaticalunit,meaningfulelementofFallintotwocategories:1)Free2)BoundAhasastanditselfasaword.ItcansometimesautteranceinEg:man,earth,wind,car,anger,noonrootsBoundMostlyCannotbyas:1)Inflectionalaffixes2)affixes1.InflectionalaffixesAttachedtheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalNumbersmallandstableto

2.Derivationalnewwords1)prefixestheword)2)theword)词的构方式1．词缀法识记：词缀法、前缀法、后缀法的概念。前后缀的特点。运用：能用前缀和后缀构词2．复合法识记：复合法的概念领会：复合词与自由词组的区别。运用：能用该构词方法构词3．转类法识记：转类法的概念。短语动词转名词的两种方法。形容词转名词中的完全转类和部分转类。领会：名词、动词、形容词三类词互相转类后的语义特色运用：能用该构词方法构词4．拼缀法识记：拼缀法的概念以及构成模式运用：能在阅读中辨认和理解拼缀词。5．截短法识记：截短法的概念和构成模式运用：能辨认和正确使用截短词6．首字母略法识记：首字母缩略法的概念和构成方法。领会：两种首字母缩略词的区别。运用：能辨认和正确运用缩略词。7．逆生法识记：逆生法的概念。逆生法的构成方法和文体特色。运用：能正确运用逆生词。8．专用名词普通化识记：转化为普通词的主要集中专用名词，以及转化的主要方式。领会：由专用名词转化的普通词的形式与意义之间的联系。它们的修辞特色问题：在英语中,主要的构词法分为哪几种?答案：有七种:1)AffixationCompounding3)conversion5)clipping6)7)blending有三种最常用:affixationcompounding问题：由专有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种?答案：Extension问题：由普通名词变为专有名词是词义变化的哪一种模式答案：问题：又被称为什么它分为哪两类？答案：isas

fallsintotwosubclasses:and要点:有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别ir:,(既属于negative,也属于reversative)pseudo-,mis-:：prefixessizeanti-,contra-,counter-,:prefixesoftrans-,:prefixesfore-,:ofbi-,uni-,semi-:-::1.Nounsuffixes1)Denominal2)Deverbal3)De-adjective-ness,4)adjective注意acoronymyblending,的名词解释要点:复合词分为哪三类2)hyphenated3)open简答题:whattheof?Whataredifferencebetweenphrases答案：1)phoneticfeatures2)3)Grammaticalfeatures性:NounAdjectivecompounds问：在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性,哪两种不具有多产性在形容性复合词当中,哪三类有多产?动词性复合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的?*词解释:ConversionistheformationofwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoshiftconversionZero-derivation选择或填空要点Adjectiveto:fullconversion(2)partial问题：形容词转为动词分为哪两类？答案：由Adjective:(1)TransitiveIntransitive简答题:形容词变动词的三种类别问题：请你举出由conjunction变为noun的一个例子答案：Ifsandblendingarealsoportmanteau(选择或填空要点)问题’分为哪四类合成词？1.+tail

2.+3.+word4.wordtail问题:绝大多数blending都是什么词性?答案：nounsTheoverwhelmingofnouns;veryareverbseven问题：截短法分为哪四类？答案：Therearefourcommontypes:1)Front2)3)Front4)要注意的例子有一个特殊变化：(refrigerator截短之后在i,中间加一个),还有拼写发生变化，比如说：coke(coca问题：什么是？istheofformingwordsbyjoininginitialofofsocialandpoliticalorspecialterms包含两类:1)initialisms(发音)BBC,VOA,TB2)形成新的发音)CORE,TEFL`Wordsfrompropernames有四大类:1.ofpeoplee.g.:Namesofpeople2.ofe.g.rugby3.ofe.g.utopia4.Tradenamese.g.cabal问题：以下的词采用哪种构词法？e.g.:(有诊断的名词后有了诊断的动词这种构词被称作)(它的构词法满足哪一种词法):属于fromproper中的ofpeopleVJ-day:(这种构词法是由哪一种构成的属于Initialisms中的Pop:(用哪一种构词法构成的)::blending:head+head名词)-----(动词)和bathe存在一种什么关系()重点句：isalsoshift.问题：v-ing,这类词构成的词是什么词？答案：compounding问题：,它是属于复合法中的哪一种？答案：Adjectives问题：请说出Adjectives中多产性强的有几类？

答案：有三类1)n+v-ing2)n+a3)n+v-ed问题：是属于哪一类构词法构成的词？答案：nouncompoundsv-ing)问题：复合词与自由短语的最大的区别是什么答案：区别也就是复合词的特点:1)features2)3)Grammaticalfeatures问题：redhorn,它们是复合词的哪一个特点构成的词答案：(也就是从构词上推不出它的涵义）问题：Compounding被称作什么法？答案：问题：由compounding或构成的词被称作什么？答案：问题：复合词分为几类？分别举例加以说明？答案：分为三类：hyphenated,open:blackail,opengreenhorn,hand问题：当形容词转为动词时分为几类：Adjectivesto答案：有三类：1)transitiveand2)transitive3)intransitive问题：由人的行为所造成的结果进行转类之后，转成了什么词性答案：noune.g.问题：形容词可不可以转类，转成名词分为几个类别?答案：分为两类：1)fullblack,2)rich,poor问题：名词再变成名词分为几类？分别举例说明？答案：2)e.g.:（可加-ess变成具体名词）加-ship可变成抽象名词）问题：(只作了解)Aisunitysoundand(true)答案：true(可从的四个特点看出）问题wordsfromforeignlanguagesanychangeinsoundand（答案：true外来词分为四类：1)Denizens

e.g.fromportform2)Aliense.g.garage,decor3)-loanse.g.longnosee4)e.g.dream判断对错题：1．ofawordfromonetoanther.orfalse答案：true2．betweenaword(true).答案：true3.ausedindifferentmaywithantonyms.(trueor答案：true4.anallomorphisanyofvariantformsofmorphemes.)答题：重点句：Awordwhichhavethanantonym.（fast在不同的语境中对应着不同的概念）选择题：Chineseisnativecannotsaytheour?.b)firstmotherd)official答案：C）(不存在的一种说法)问题：以下的哪一个词isnotexpressionAmerican?A)B)MailboxD)Congress答案：(只有英国人把地铁叫美国人把它叫作subway,underground)问题’它是smoke,合在一起形成的词，它是采用了下面哪一种构词法？A)B)compoundingC)D)backformation答案：C)问题：以下的词哪些属于：B)C)derivedD)shortenedform.e.g.goldmine)bike(shortenedform)process:是一个不可分割的bound，它是一个前缀)()(simple)driver)()modernize)blackboard(compoundbus(shortenedform(omnibus)

Whatthebetweencontentwordsandwords,illustratepointwith?注意：答题时先答名词解释，再加以例子说明。(复习考虑的题)Whatthebetweenmeaning?论述题)arefundamentalfeaturesofthestockofEnglishvocabulary?答题时先答名词解释basicwordstock再答五大特点并配以例子加以说明。关键答好第一个特点:Allnationalcharacter，它又分为五个特点)ofword-building1)affixation30-40%28-30%3)conversion4)shorteningTwosubclasses:1)prefixation2)1.Prefixation(9)prefixes:in-,il,ir,non-,Disloyal,injustice,illegal,irresistible,non-smoker,unwilling2)reversativede-,dis,un,Decompose,disunite,unwrap3)pejorative4)degreeunderdeveloped5)orientationandattitude:anti-,contra-,counter-,pro-contraflow,inter-,intra-,tele-,Eg.extraordinary,forehead,inter-city,intra-party,telecommunicate,trans-world7)timeex-,fore-,post-,pre-,8)number:bi-,multi-(poly-),semi-(hemi-),tri-,uni-(mono-)Eg.automobile,pan-European,vice-chairman4)1.Noun1)Denominal

a.Concrete:-eer,-er,-ess,-ette,-let,-sterEg.engineer,teenager,hostess,cigarette,booklet,gangster2)Deverbala.Denotingpeople:-ant,-ee,-ent,-er(or)b.Denotingaction,result,process,state:2.Adjectivesuffixes1)Denominalsuffixes:-ed,-ish,-like,-ly,-yky,bloody2)Deverbalsuffixes:-able(-ible),Eg.originate,darken,heighten,strengthen,solidify,beautify,modernize词素构词综合练习：问题：WhichthefollowingwordsisnotformedthroughA)B)MotelD)zoo答案：Motel:问题：Oldhasofmanywords?答案：to问题：词素分为自由词素和粘着词素，自由词素又被称作自由词根，粘着词素分为哪两类？答案：粘着词素分为：Bound和affixes选择题或填空：BesidesFrenchwords,EnglishabsorbedasasinMiddleEnglishPeriod.)AathatB.A)issamecommunityB)inbothsimpleandinD)ShowdifferentindifferentsoundsPronounsnumeralsenjoynationwideusehaslimitedProductivity问题：以下的这些词是粘着词素吗，以下的这些词是什么样的构词法？1)heartandsoul(Adverbialinnature)2)fathermaleparent()

3)City-bred(noun+)4)Lip-reading-lip(backformation)5)(compoundn+v)6)(下划线的这一部分是什么：bound)7)preview:前缀8)receive(bound)9)(inflectional)第三章词的理据；识记：拟声理据、形态理据、语义理据、词源理据。领会：词义的理据与“约定俗成”的关系。第四章词的语义特；1)componential(p318)2)Onwhatsemantic3)arethedifferencebetweendynamicstativeverbs?(320-321)4)arethebetweendynamicstative第五章词义的变化1．词义变的种类识记：词义的扩大、词义的缩小、词义的升华、词义的降格的基本概念。领会：四种变化方式在英语词汇发展中的作用。2．词义变的原因领会：词义演变的语言外部原因：历史原因、阶级原因、心理原因。语言内部原因：缩略、借用和类推。MeaningI.PolysemyTheordifferentisknownas“polesemysuchword“polesemic”.1.ofpolysemyPolesemycanariseinShiftsinWordsdifferentaspectstocontextsinwhichtheyofthesearepurelyephemeral;othersdevelopintoshadesthegapbetweenwidens,comethemasdifferentsensesofsameterm.ShiftsinparticularlynoticeableinofareaptB.inasocialmilieuPolesemyarisesthroughkindofshorthand.Fora“actionwillnaturallymean“legalaction”;forthesoldieritwillmeanamilitaryoperation,withoutanyneedforqualifyingInthisthesamemayacquireaofspecializedsenses,ofwhichwillbeinmilieu.C.Figurative

Acanbeorfigurativesenseswithoutlosingitsmeaning:newwillliveonsidebylongasthereisnopossibilityofbetweenthem.Polesemythatbasedmetaphorscanexemplifiedbyfollowingofariver,ofgun,inthemountains,asheetofpaper,ironwater,etc.2.Primaryandderivative(derived)meaningTheprimaryreferstowhatoriginallymeantderivativereferstospringingfromtheoriginalmeaning3.secondarymeaningAnprocessbywhichwordscalled.Theprimaryortheformofhubandoutfromitlikeofwheel.Eachofsecondaryisofallmaybetracedbacktosignification.Taketheword“power”forexample.Itscentralmeaningis“abilitytoact”.Itmayreferto(1)controloverone’ssubordinates;(2)delegatedauthority;(3)physicalstrength;(4)(5)adevicebymeansofwhichenergybe(6)force;(7)apersonof(8)ofofworld;anortroopofsoldiers;(11)qualityofinwritingortheofmagnificationofetc.Anotherprocess,asopposedtoradiation,iscalled“”.Itthatawordmovesgraduallyfromitsoriginalsensearesultofsemanticchangesuntil,inmayofconnectionbetweenthatisdevelopedtheprimarysense.Agoodexampleis“candidateThewordderivedfromtheLatincandidateswhichoriginallymeant“apersondressedinwhite”,then,“awhiteseekerforofficer”,fromtheRomancustomofwearing’sfreshestrobeswhenaskingthesuffragesofthepeople.Inthecurrentuseof“candidate”,theideaof“whiteattire”hascompletelydisappeared,leavingonlythesenseof“anapplicantforoffice”,whichhasnoconnectionwiththeprimarytheword.II.TypesofareavarietyofsemanticchangesintheEnglishillustratedonebythefollowing.1.GeneralizationExtensionThe“generalization,orextension”referstheofmeaningwordsasspecificnamesforthings.oftime,thisprecisedenotationislostandword’smeaningisextended,generalized,orblurred.Bribery,morselofbreadtobeggarsEconomy,ofstate,publicrevenueOrientation<orientate,east

Influence,flowingofanetherealfluidorpowerfromthestars,astrologerstoofHolidays,religiousfestivalnotclergySanctuary,holySlogan,cryScottishHighlandandIrishinanassemblysignalplace,broad2.“Specialization”means“shrinkingofmeaningWhenawordisequallyapplicabletoanumberofobjectswhichinsometoaorgeneralofideas,itmayatmomentbecomebybeingusedtoofobjectsortoof1)Theoldmeaningof“artillery”was“munitionsofwar”.Todayitmeans“mounted”.2)“Pillwhichoncemeantageneralcategoryofsmallmedicinalhasnownarrowedtospecificofbirthcontrolpill.3)“Fowl”originallymeant“anyofbird”.Later,itcametomeanonlybirds,andnowthewordisitisbirdsashen.4)“Fission”,ifstandingalone,wouldnowprobablybetakenbymostreaderstorefernottoanykindof“splitting”,tonuclearfission.5)“Nucleuswouldsimilarlybetakenthenucleusofanatom,thoughbeforeHiroshimaitwasspecializedformostreadersasa“cellnucleus”.6)“Radiationisnowlikelytomakethinknotofthe“generalofspreadingoflightwheel-like,acenterbutof“thediffusionofradioactiveparticlesoremanationsfollowinganatomicbombexplosion”.3.ElevationorWhenthenarrowsafavorablemeaning,itiselevation1)“naughtyoncemeantwickedanddepraved.Today,itmeansonlymildmischief.2)“mischiefitselfoncemeantwickedbehavior.Todayitcanapplyamerelynaughty3)Atonetime,“shrewdmeantdepravedorwicked.Today,itissomewhatcomplimentary.Somewordsthatimpliedneutraljudgment,thennarrowedinthedirectionof“favorable”.1)“Praise”oncemeant“setavalueonsomethinggoodorbad”now2)“Fame”whichoriginallymeant“reportnowmeans“goodreputation”.

3)“Success”whichoncemeant“result,outcomenowreferstoafavorableorAprocesstohasoccurredwithwordsthatsocialthatelevatedthroughhistory:1)“knightoriginallynamedonlyboyoryouth;2)“constable”,thehead3)“queen”,awoman;4)“minister,aservant;5)“marshal”,aservant;6)“lady”,kneaderbread;7)“steward”,possiblyoverseerofthesky;8)“ambassadoramessenger.4.DegenerationWhentheofitorSomewordsrespectablemaybecomelesssoothersonceinacquireA“villainwasoriginallyamanwhoworkedonafarmorvilla.Suchawasnaturallyfeltbysocialtohavealowsenseofmorality,theword“villain”,atfirstatermimplyingnocontempt.,betermofreproach.Theprocessofpejorativechangehaswithotherchurla)（粗野的人）(oncefarmer)knavea（贱妇）a(onceanysmirk（傻笑）asmile)(oncerepayforpredicamentanysituation)(oncenotcustomary)ingeneral).5.TheofabstracttheviceversaTheuseoffortheapplicationoftheofaqualitytoperson.Itthereverseofpersonification.Inpersonification,qualityofasawhereasintheoftheabstractforconcreteaisdesignatedifhewerequalityincarnate,in“Sheisvirtueitself.TheElizabethanabstracttopersons.“admirationfor“wonderfulcreature(“BringtheadmirationPoaddressesPeradita“enchantmentmeaningthatshehasbewitchedhisbybeauty.Julietgoesfarinherexcitementastocallheroldnurse“ancientdamnation”.ofthesewouldoccurinEnglish,canstill

manycasesofofabstractnounstopersons.Apersonofwhomhisareproudtheofhisfamily;bedescribedan“inspirationorone’s“ruin”or“salvation”.1)TheWallofistheadmirationofworld.2)DantewasformyItaly.3)loanshavebeentheofshakybusinesscompanies.Theofacanalsoanobjectexhibiting“Falsehood”meansfalsitytheabstractandalsoaparticularalie;athingadmirebeautyacanbetoabeautifulDifferentfromtheaboveofsemanticchangeofconcretefortheabstract.TheintheandmaninismixtureoftigerintheofaFrenchman.6.CommonwordsfrompropernamesTheuseofpropernounageneralknownasantonomasia（换称）.InEnglish,efromhistoryorfromdifferently.“Solon（贤人）”fromtheAthenianstatesmanandlawgiver“ssage”,oftenusedjocoselyofahasofJudas,thedisciplewhobetrayedJesus,“atraitor”orinparticular,“afalsefriend”;Sherlock,acharacterinShakespeare’sVenice“amercilessusurer”,oringeneral,amoney-”;BraggadociofromacharacterSpencer’s,“acowardlybooster”.SomefromproperhaveintheincourseofManytermscoinedinhonorofnounsvoltfromA.VItalianphysicist;wattfromJamesinventor;ampereA.M.Frenchphysicist;ohmfromS.Germanofplacesarerecognizableinthenounsfrom（葡萄干）fromCorinth;damask（缎子）fromDamascus;（女帽）fromMilan,Italy;sherryfrom赫雷兹）Spain;（疯人院）fromofofBethlehem,

7.Transferenceoftwo(1)ofthepersonorthingthatexercisesit;(2)ofthepersonthingisaffectedbybetweenactivetheeffectproduced,betweencausethatwhichitbetweenthesubjectiveisgreat.Theprocessbythedifferencehasoccurredintheofalanguageiscalledtransferencemeaning.Herewewillconfinetodistinctionbetweenthesubjectivethe