医学专业英语答案

医学专业英语答案【篇一：医学英语（阅读一分册）翻译及答案】passage1humanbodyinthispassageyouwilllearn:1.classificationoforgansystems2.structureandfunctionofeachorgansystem3.associatedmedicaltermstounderstandthehumanbodyitisnecessarytounderstandhowitspartsareputtogetherandhowtheyfunction.thestudyofthebodysstructureiscalledanatomy;thestudyofthebodysfunctionisknownasphysiology.otherstudiesofhumanbodyincludebiology,cytology,embryology,histology,endocrinology,hematology,immunology,psychologyetc.了解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体是必需的。研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学；研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。其他研究人体的科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学等等。anatomistsfinditusefultodividethehumanbodyintotensystems,thatis,theskeletalsystem,themuscularsystem,thecirculatorysystem,therespiratorysystem,thedigestivesystem,theurinarysystem,theendocrinesystem,thenervoussystem,thereproductivesystemandtheskin.theprincipalpartsofeachofthesesystemsaredescribedinthisarticle.解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。本文描绘并阐述了各系统的主要部分。theskeletalsystemismadeofbones,jointsbetweenbones,andcartilage.itsfunctionistoprovidesupportandprotectionforthesofttissuesandtheorgansofthebodyandtoprovidepointsofattachmentforthemusclesthatmovethebody.thereare206bonesinthehumanskeleton.theyhavevariousshapes-long,short,cube-shaped,flat,andirregular.manyofthelongboneshaveaninteriorspacethatisfilledwithbonemarrow,wherebloodcellsaremade.骨骼系统由骨、关节以及软骨组成。它对软组织及人体器官起到支持和保护作用，并牵动骨胳肌，引起各种运动。人体有206根骨头。骨形态不一，有长的、短、立方的、扁的及不规则的。许多长骨里有一个内层间隙，里面充填着骨髓,这即是血细胞的制造场所。ajointiswherebonesarejoinedtogether.theconnectioncanbesoclosethatnomovementispossible,asisthecaseintheskull.otherkindsofjointspermitmovement:eitherbackandforthinoneplane-aswiththehingejointoftheelbow-ormovementaroundasingleaxis-aswiththepivotjointthatpermitstheheadtorotate.awiderangeofmovementispossiblewhentheball-shapedendofonebonefitsintoasocketattheendofanotherbone,astheydointheshoulderandhipjoints.关节把骨与骨连接起来。颅骨不能运动，是由于骨与骨之间的连接太紧密。但其它的关节可允许活动，如一个平面上的前后屈伸运动,如肘关节；或是绕轴心旋转运动，如枢轴点允许头部转动。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大辐度的运动（如肩关节、髋关节）即成为可能。cartilageisamoreflexiblematerialthanbone.itservesasaprotective,cushioninglayerwherebonescometogether.italsoconnectstheribstothebreastboneandprovidesastructuralbaseforthenoseandtheexternalear.aninfantsskeletonismadeofcartilagethatisgraduallyreplacedbyboneastheinfantgrowsintoanadult.软骨是一种比一般骨更具韧性的物质。它是骨连结的保护、缓冲层。它把肋骨与胸骨连结起来，也是鼻腔与内耳的结构基础。一个婴儿的骨骼就是由软骨组成，然后不断生长、骨化，使婴儿长大成人。themuscularsystemallowsthebodytomove,anditscontractionsproduceheat,whichhelpsmaintainaconstantbodytemperature.striatedmusclescanbeconsciouslycontrolled.theendsofthesemusclesareattachedtodifferentbonesbyconnectivetissuebandssothatwhenthemusclecontracts,onebonemovesinrelationtotheother.thismakesitpossibletomovethewholebody,aswhenwalking,ortomovejustonepartofthebody,aswhenbendingafinger.contractionsoftheheartandsmoothmusclesarenotunderconsciouscontrol.smoothmusclesarefoundinthewallsoforganssuchasthestomachandtheintestinesandservetomovethecontentsoftheseorgansthroughthebody.肌肉系统使躯体运动，肌肉收缩产生的热有助于维持一个恒定的体温。人体能够有意识地控制条纹肌。结缔组织使肌肉末端附着于不同的骨面上，所以当肌肉收缩时，两骨彼此靠近而产生运动。这也就使整个人体可以运动起来，如走路，运动躯体某个部位，如弯曲手指。心脏收缩和平滑肌收缩就不是被意识所控制的。器官壁内层的平滑肌，如胃肠壁的平滑肌把胃肠中的物质运送到全身。thecirculatorysystem.allpartsofthebodymusthavenourishmentandoxygeninordertofunctionandgrow,andtheirwasteproductsmustberemovedbeforetheyaccumulateandpoisonthebody.thecirculatorysystemdistributesneededmaterialsandremovesunneededones.itismadeupoftheheart,bloodvessels,andblood,whichtogethermakeupthecardiovascularsystem.thebloodisalsopartofthebodysdefensesystem.ithasantibodiesandwhitebloodcellsthatprotectthebodyagainstforeigninvaders.循环系统：机体的所有部分需要营养物质和氧气来使之发挥功能和生长，也需要在这些器官所产生的废物积聚而危害生命之前将其排除。循环系统运送有用物质，排泄废物。心血管系统是循环系统的组成之一；心血管系统包括心脏、血管及血液。血液也是机体防御系统的一个部分，血液中有抗体及白细胞来防止机体受到外来的侵袭。theheartisamusclethatisdividedintotwonearlyidenticalhalves:onehalfreceivesbloodfromthelungsandsendsittotherestofthebody,theotherhalfsendsbloodthathastraveledthroughthebodybacktothelungs.whentheheartmusclecontracts,thebloodisforcedoutintoarteriesandenterssmallcapillaries.bloodreturnstotheheartthroughveins.心脏是一块被分为几乎对等两半的肌肉。一半吸收来自肺部的血液，并将血液运送到机体的其余部位，另一半使流经全身的血液回流人肺。心脏收缩时，动脉把全身血液输送到毛细血管。静脉输送血液返回心脏。alsofunctioningincirculationisthelymphaticsystem.someofthefluidthatsurroundscellsdoesnotreenterthebloodvesselsdirectly.thisfluid,calledlymph,returnstotheheartbywayofanothersystemofchannels-thelymphvessels.lymphnodesalongthesevesselsfilterthefluidbeforeitreenterstheblood.thespleenisalargelymphaticorganthatfiltersthe的体blood.淋巴系统也是循环系统的一个组成部分。一些细胞周的体液不是直接回流入血管通道，这种体液叫淋巴液，它是流经另一个管道系统一一淋巴管而回流人心脏。沿淋巴管的淋巴结将淋巴液过滤，过滤后再回流人血液。脾是一个过滤血液的大淋巴器官。therespiratorysystemtakesinoxygenfromtheairandexpelscarbondioxideandwatervapor.airentersthenoseandmouthandtravelsthroughthelarynx,andtrachea.thetracheadividestoentereachofthetwolungsandthendividesmorethan20timestoformaverylargenumberofsmallairspaces.oxygenfromtheairentersthebloodthroughcapillariesinthewallsoftheseairspaces,andthebloodreleasecarbondioxideintotheairspacestobeexhaled.呼吸系统从空气中摄取氧气，并将二氧化碳、水蒸气排出体外。空气经鼻腔、口腔人喉管、气管。气管分成左右支气管，各连结左右肺，左右支气管再分枝20多次,在终端形成大量微小的肺泡。从空气摄取的氧气流经这些肺泡壁内的毛细血管流入血液，血液再经肺泡把释放出的二氧化碳排出体外。thedigestivesystemconsistsofatubeextendingfromthemouthtotheanus.init,foodandfluidsaretakenin,movedthroughthebody,andbrokendownintosmallmoleculesthatareabsorbedintothecirculatorysystem.thisbreakdown,knownasdigestion,isbothamechanicalandachemicalprocess.消化系统是一个从口腔直到肛门的管道。食物和液体在消化道里被吸收，在肠道里移动时，被分解成小分子物质后再进入循环系统。这种分解，即消化，是一个机械过程，也是一个化学过程。foodentersthroughthemouth,wherechewingandsalivastarttobreakitupandmakeiteasiertoswallow.next,thefoodtravelsdownthroughtheesophagustothestomach.contractionsofthestomachsmuscularwallcontinuetobreakdownthefoodmechanically,andchemicaldigestioncontinueswhenacidandenzymesaresecretedintothestomachcavity.食物进入口腔里，咀嚼和唾液开始将食物粉碎，使之便于吞咽。接着，食物经食管人胃。胃肌壁的收缩继续机械化地分解食物，而当鱼和酶分泌入胃腔时，化学性消化开始。hefirstpartofthesmallintestine,calledtheduodenum,enzymesfromthepancreasareadded.theseenzymescompletethechemicalbreakdownofthefood.thedigestionoffatisaidedbybile,whichismadeintheliverandstoredinthegallbladder.thesmallintestineofanadultisabout21feet(6.4meters）long.mostofitslengthisdevotedtoabsorbingthenutrientsreleasedduringthesedigestiveactivities.液体化食物逐渐进入小肠。小肠的起始部分叫十二指肠，胰腺分泌的酶辅助食物消化。这些酶完成食物的化学分解。肝脏分泌的胆汁贮存在胆囊内，胆汁有助于脂肪消化。一个成年人的小肠有21英尺（6.4米）长。小肠的大部分肠段用来吸收消化过程中释放的营养物质。theliquidremainderofthefoodentersthelargeintestine,orcolon,whichisabout12feet（3.7meters）helargeintestinemostofthefluidisabsorbed,andtherelativelydryresiduesareexpelled.液状的剩余食物进入大肠，或结肠，它大约有12英尺（3.7米）长。大肠是小肠的两倍多宽。大部分液体在大肠内被吸收,相对干化的残余物被排出体外。theurinarysystemmaintainsnormallevelsofwaterandofcertainsmallmoleculessuchassodiumandpotassiuminthebody.itdoesthisbypassingbloodthroughthekidneys,twoefficientfilteringorgansthatgetridofanyexcessofvariousmoleculesandconservethosemoleculesthatareinshortsupply.泌尿系统维持水分及体内某些小分子物质，如钠、钾的正常水平。身体是通过让‘肾过滤血液来做到这一点的。肾是两个有效的过滤器官，它滤出各种多余的小分子物质，保留那些供应不足的小分子物质。thefluidthatleavesthekidneys,knownasurine,travelsthroughatubecalledtheuretertothebladder.thebladderholdstheurineuntilitisvoidedfromthebodythroughanothertube,theurethra.从肾流出的液体，即尿，通过输尿管人膀胱。膀胱起贮存尿液的作用，直到尿经膀胱另一端的管道排出。theendocrinesystem.thetwosystemsthatcontrolbodyactivitiesaretheendocrinesystemandthenervoussystem.theformerexertsitscontrolbymeansofchemicalmessengerscalledhormones.hormonesareproducedbyavarietyofendocrineglands,whichreleasethehormonesdirectlyintothebloodstream.内分泌系统。内分泌和神经是调控机体活动的两个系统，前者依靠其化学信使一激素发挥作用。激素是由各种内分泌腺体制造，并直接被释放入血流amajorglandisthepituitary,whichislocatedunderthebraininthemiddleofthehead.itproducesatleasteighthormones,whichaffectgrowth,kidneyfunction,anddevelopmentofthesexorgans.becausesomeofthepituitaryshormonesstimulateotherglandstoproducetheirownhormones,thepituitarycalledthemastergland.脑垂体是一个主要腺体，它位于头中部脑下方。它至少分泌八种激素，这些激素对人体生长、肝功能及性器官发育有影响。因为脑垂体分泌的一些激素促进其他腺体分泌激素，所以脑垂体是主要腺体。anothergland,thethyroid,islocatedbetweenthecollarbones.itshormonecontrolstherateofthebodysmetabolism.thesexorgans(ovariesendtestes)makethesexcellsandalsomakehormonesthatcontrolcertaincharacteristicsofmalesandfemales.locatedontopofeachkidneyistheadrenalgland,whichproducescortisoneandadrenaline.thepancreasproducesnotonlydigestiveenzymesbutalso3insulinandglucagon,whichcontrolthebodysuseofsugarandstarches.另一个腺体，甲状腺，位于锁骨之间。甲状腺激素调控着机体新陈代谢的速度。性器官（卵巢、睾丸）分泌性细胞和性激素，这些激素控制着男性和女性的某些特征。每边肾上方是肾上腺，它分泌可的松和肾上腺激素。胰腺不仅分泌消化酶，而且分泌胰岛素和高血糖素，这两种激素控制机体的糖分及淀粉的消耗。thenervoussystem.thebrain,thespinalcordandthenerve-alsocontrolsbodyactivities.thelowerpartsofthebraincontrolbasicfunctionssuchasbreathingandheartrateaswellasbodytemperature,hunger,andthirst.abovetheseregionsarethecentersforsight,sound,touch,smell,andtaste,andtheregionsthatdirectvoluntarymuscularactivitiesofthearmsandlegs.performedherearethehigherfunctionsofintegratingandprocessinginformation.神经系统 脑、脊髓及神经，也调控机体活动。脑的偏下部位控制着诸如呼吸、心跳、体温、饥渴的基本活动。而脑的偏上部位则是视觉、听觉、触觉、嗅觉及味觉中心，也是指挥臂、腿随意肌肉运动的区域。神经系统更高级的功能是整合、处理信息。thebrainreceivesandsendsinformationbymeansofnerves,manyofwhichliepartlyinthespinalcord.thespinalcordisprotectedbythespinalcolumn.nervesenterandleavethespinalcordateachlevelofthebody,travelingtoandfromthearms,legs,andtrunk.thesenervesbringinformationfromthevarioussenseorgans.theinformationisprocessedbythebrain,andthenmessagesarecarriedbacktomusclesandglandsthroughoutthebody.脑通过神经收集并传送信息，许多神经部分地分布在脊髓里。脊髓由脊柱保护。在机体每一级，神经传人、传出脊髓，往返于臂、腿、躯体。这些神经输送来自各种感觉器官的信息。信息经脑处理后输送回全身及腺体thereproductivesystemisconstructeddifferentlyformalesandfemales.themalereproductivesystemisresponsibleforproducing,transportingandmaintainingviablesperm(themalesexcell).italsoproducesthemalesexhormone,testosterone,whichregulatesthedevelopmentofabeard,pubichair,adeepvoiceandotherbodilycharacteristicsoftheadultmale.男、女性的生殖系统不同。男性生殖系统产生、输送、维持能存活的精子(男性性细胞)。它也分泌男性激素、睾酮，以此调节胡须、阴毛、深沉嗓音极其他成年男子身体发育的特征。thefemaleproductivesystemisresponsibleforproducingandtransportingova(thefemalesexcells),eliminatingovafromthebodywhentheyarenotfertilizedbysperm,nourishingandprovidingaplaceforgrowthofanembryowhenanovumisfertilizedbysperm,andnourishinganewbornchild.thefemalereproductivesystemalsoproducesthefemalesexhormones,estrogenandprogesterone,whichregulatethedevelopmentofbreastsandotherbodilycharacteristicsofthematurefemale.女性生殖系统产生、输送卵子(女性性细胞)，将未受精的卵子排出体外，而当精、卵结合时，女性生殖系统培养、提供胚胎生长场所，并孕育新生儿。女性生殖系统也分泌女性性激素——雌激素和孕酮，以此调节乳房及其他成熟女性身体发育的特征。cellsandtissues细胞与组织inthispassage,youwilllearn:1.humanbodysystemsasawhole2.vitalpartsofacell3.fourkindsoftissuescellsareorganizedintotissues,andtissuesarearrangedintoorgans,whichinturnaregroupedintosystems.eachbodysystemservesitsspecificfunctions.bearinmindhoweverthatthebodyfunctionsasawhole----nosystemisindependentoftheothers.theyworktogethertomaintainthebody’sstateofinternalstability,termedhomeostasis.nowlet,sbeginourdiscussionwithcells,thesmallestunitoflivingmatterthatcanexistbyitself.细胞构成组织，组织构成器官，器官又进一步构成系统。人体的每个系统都有其特定功能，但是，请记住这里:机体是作为一个整体来发挥作用的，没有哪个系统能够独立于其他系统而存在，是整体系统共同作用保持了机体内部的稳定状态，即体内平衡。现在，我们先讨论细胞一能独立存在活性物质的最小单位。thebodycanbestudiedfromitssimplesttoitsmostcomplexlevel,beginningwiththecell.allbodyfunctionsresultfromtheactivitiesofbillionsofthespecializedcells.someplantsandanimalsconsistofonlyasinglecell.othersarecomposedofmanybillionsofcells.从细胞开始，我们能够从最简单到最复杂的水平来研究机体。所有人体的功能都来自亿万个特定细胞活动，有的动植物仅由一个细胞构成，其他生物则由亿万个细胞构成。cellsexistinavarietyofshapesandsizes.theymay,forexample,becube-shapedorflat.scientistswhostudycellshavedeterminedthatasinglecellmaybeaslargeasatennisballorsosmallthatthousandswouldfitonthepointofaneedle.theyolkofahen,seggisactuallyaverylargecell.bycontrast,bacteria eachoneofwhichisatinycell areamongthesmallestcells.regardlessofitsshapeorsize,everycellcontainsthe“machinery”neededtomaintainlife.whilenormallycellsfunctionwithgreatefficiency,theyaresubjecttovariousdisordersthatresultindisease.细胞有很多种形状和大小。列如：有可能是立方形或扁形的。科学家的研究发现单独一个细胞可以像网球一样的大小，或小到几千个细胞才能刚好填满针头。鸡的蛋黄是一个非常大的单细胞。微小的细菌呢算是最小的细胞。不管是细胞大小或形状的不同，每个细胞都有“需要存活的机制”。对每个正常的细胞，有效力的细胞，都存在许多问题，能导致疾病。thesizeofcellsisusuallymeasuredinmicrons.amicronisamillionthofameter,andabout25,000micronsequaloneinch.thesmallestbacteriaareabout0.2micronindiameter.theaveragecellinthehumanbody abouttenmicronsindiameter----isaspeckbarelyvisiblewithouttheaidofamicroscope.细胞的大小是以“微米”为长度单位。微米是一米的一百万分之一，25000微米等于一寸。最小的细菌的圆径是0.2微米。人体正常细胞的评价圆径约十【篇二：医学专业英语1-4单元术语解释、短语和课后习题答案】>humanbodyasawholemedicalterminologylearnthefollowingcombiningforms,prefixesandsuffixesandwritethemeaningofthemedicalterminthespaceprovided.ahormonesecretedfromtheadrenalglandinflammationoftheadrenalglandpertainingtomedicinepertainingtobiologypertainingtochemistrypertainingtothebloodvesselpertainingtocellspertainingtomoleculespertainingtothemedicineofthelivingthingthestudyofthelivingthingpertainingtothephysicsofthelivingthingthestudyoftheheartthediseaseofthehearttherecordoftheheartwavesthestudyofthehumaninnersecretionfromglandspertainingtotheproductionofhormonethestudyofinnerglandsecretiontheredbloodcellthewhitebloodcellthelymphcellthestudyofcellthestudyofchemistryofcellthestudyofbiologyofcellthetumoroftheembryothestudyofthediseaseoftheembryothestudyofthehumaninnersecretionfromglandspertainingtotheinsideoftheheartpertainingtotheinsideofthecellabovetheskinabovetheskininflammationoftheskinredbloodcellsinstrumentofmeasuringredbloodcellstobreatheoutthewastegastodrivesomebodyorsomethingouttospreadoutsidesththatproducesdiseasesthestudyofbloodbloodcellsthestudyoftissuesthestudyoftissuepathologytherapytreatment,hencetissuetreatmentpertainingtothebasepertainingtothetoxinpertainingtosymptomsthestudyofbody’sautoprotectionfromdiseasesprotectedfromdeficiencyintheimmunesystemofthebodysubstancefromtheadrenalglandwaterfromitthestudyofsocietiesthestudyofurinarysystemlymphcellstumorofthelymphaticsystemthestudyofthelymphaticsystemthestudyofphysicalgrowthadoctorofinternalmedicinetreatmentbyphysiologicalmethodsthenewgrowth,tumorthestudyofmindabnormalconditionofthemindthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenpsychologyandbiologyaconditionofoveractivityofthethyroidglandtheconditionofunderactivityofthethyroidglandtheinflammationofthethyroidglandcuttingapartthehumanbodyasabranchofmedicalsciencescutopenthebonetocuttheheartopenpertainingtothebloodvesselinflammationofthebloodvesselpertainingtothelymphaticsystemandthebloodvesselkeytotheexercisesb.(embryo)embryology(process/condition)mechanism(heart)cardiovascular(color)chromatin(secretion)endocrinology(cell)cytology(sth.thatproducesorisproduced)pathogen(lymph)lymphatic(thestudyof)psychology(pertainingto)regularlanguagepoints:puttogether组成knownas叫做jointsbetweenbones关节toprovidepointsofattachmentforthemusclesthatmovethebody牵动骨骼肌引起各种运动hipjoint髋关节flexible有韧性的cushioning缓冲replacedbybone骨化onebonemovesinrelationtotheother两骨彼此靠近产生运动contents物质nourishment营养物质function发挥功能wasteproducts废物accumulate积聚poisonthebody危害生命distributes运送neededmaterials有用的物质unneededones废物ismadeupof包括protect…againstforegninvaders防止外来侵袭(see!powerpoint)identical对等的receives吸收traveledthrough流经forcedout压送reenter流入directly直接地channels管道filters过滤larynx喉管trachea气管twolungs左右肺verylargenumberof大量的airspaces肺泡release释放出extending延伸至Ubrokendown分解absorbedinto吸收进chewing咀嚼esophagus食管keytothesectionbpassage1exercisesb.(theskeletalsystemconsistsofbones,jointsandsoftbones.)(heartisgeneratedwhenmusclesarecontracted,whichhelpskeepthebodytemperatureconstant.)(thecirculationofbloodcarriesusefulmaterialstoallbodycellswhileremovingwasteones.)(oxygenisinhaledandcarbondioxideisexhaledintheprocessofrespiration.)(thedigestionoffoodinvolvesbothmechanicalandchemicalprocedures.)(theurinarysystemkeepsnormallevelsofwaterandofcertainchemicalsinthebody.)(thepituitaryisamajorglandlocatedunderthebraininthemiddleofthehead.)(thebraincollectsandprocessesinformationandthensendsinstructionstoallpartsofthebodytobecarriedout.)(themainfunctionofthemalereproductivesystemistogenerate,transportandkeepactivemalesexcells.)(thelargestofthebody’sorgans,theskinprotectstheinnerstructureofthebodywithacompletelayer.)keytothesectionapassagelexercisese.1.cardiovasculardiseases2.functionofthepituitary3.theurinarytract4.molecules5.artery6.endocrinology7.dyspnea/difficultyinrespiration8.saliva9.histology10.bloodcirculation11.hematology12.physiology13.anatomy14.thefemalereproductive15.nervouscells16.immunology17.indigestion/poorindigestion18.voluntarymuscle19.embryology20.psychologysectionb,passage2cellsandtissueslanguagepointsorganized组(构)成arrangedinto构成inturnaregroupedinto又进一步组成servesitsspecific有特定的bearinmind记住resultfrom源于billions亿万determind确立fiton合在一起bycontrast相比之下machinary机构whilenormally在正常情况下functionwithgreatefficiency高效地发挥作用【篇三：医学专业英语阅读一分册第一章】itisnecessarytounderstandhowitspartsareputtogetherandhowtheyfunction.thestudyofthebodysstructureiscalledanatomy;thestudyofthebodysfunctionisknownasphysiology.otherstudiesofhumanbodyincludebiology,cytology,embryology,histology,endocrinology,hematology,immunology,psychologyetc.了解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体是必需的。研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学；研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。其他研究人体的科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学等等。anatomistsfinditusefultodividethehumanbodyintotensystems,thatis,theskeletalsystem,themuscularsystem,thecirculatorysystem,therespiratorysystem,thedigestivesystem,theurinarysystem,theendocrinesystem,thenervoussystem,thereproductivesystemandtheskin.theprincipalpartsofeachofthesesystemsaredescribedinthisarticle.解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。本文描绘并阐述了各系统的主要部分。theskeletalsystemismadeofbones,jointsbetweenbones,andcartilage.itsfunctionistoprovidesupportandprotectionforthesofttissuesandtheorgansofthebodyandtoprovidepointsofattachmentforthemusclesthatmovethebody.thereare206bonesinthehumanskeleton.theyhavevariousshapes-long,short,cube-shaped,flat,andirregular.manyofthelongboneshaveaninteriorspacethatisfilledwithbonemarrow,wherebloodcellsaremade.骨骼系统由骨、关节以及软骨组成。它对软组织及人体器官起到支持和保护作用，并牵动骨胳肌，引起各种运动。人体有206根骨头。骨形态不一，有长的、短、立方的、扁的及不规则的。许多长骨里有一个内层间隙，里面充填着骨髓，这即是血细胞的制造场所。ajointiswherebonesarejoinedtogether.theconnectioncanbesoclosethatnomovementispossible,asisthecaseintheskull.otherkindsofjointspermitmovement:eitherbackandforthinoneplane-aswiththehingejointoftheelbow-ormovementaroundasingleaxis-aswiththepivotjointthatpermitstheheadtorotate.awiderangeofmovementispossiblewhentheball-shapedendofonebonefitsintoasocketattheendofanotherbone,astheydointheshoulderandhipjoints.关节把骨与骨连接起来。颅骨不能运动，是由于骨与骨之间的连接太紧密。但其它的关节可允许活动，如一个平面上的前后屈伸运动，如肘关节；或是绕轴心旋转运动，如枢轴点允许头部转动。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大辐度的运动（如肩关节、髋关节）即成为可能。cartilageisamoreflexiblematerialthanbone.itservesasaprotective,cushioninglayerwherebonescometogether.italsoconnectstheribstothebreastboneandprovidesastructuralbaseforthenoseandtheexternalear.aninfantsskeletonismadeofcartilagethatisgraduallyreplacedbyboneastheinfantgrowsintoanadult.软骨是一种比一般骨更具韧性的物质。它是骨连结的保护、缓冲层。它把肋骨与胸骨连结起来，也是鼻腔与内耳的结构基础。一个婴儿的骨骼就是由软骨组成，然后不断生长、骨化，使婴儿长大成人。themuscularsystemallowsthebodytomove,anditscontractionsproduceheat,whichhelpsmaintainaconstantbodytemperature.striatedmusclescanbeconsciouslycontrolled.theendsofthesemusclesareattachedtodifferentbonesbyconnectivetissuebandssothatwhenthemusclecontracts,onebonemovesinrelationtotheother.thismakesitpossibletomovethewholebody,aswhenwalking,ortomovejustonepartofthebody,aswhenbendingafinger.contractionsoftheheartandsmoothmusclesarenotunderconsciouscontrol.smoothmusclesarefoundinthewallsoforganssuchasthestomachandtheintestinesandservetomovethecontentsoftheseorgansthroughthebody.肌肉系统使躯体运动，肌肉收缩产生的热有助于维持一个恒定的体温。人体能够有意识地控制条纹肌。结缔组织使肌肉末端附着于不同的骨面上，所以当肌肉收缩时，两骨彼此靠近而产生运动。这也就使整个人体可以运动起来，如走路，运动躯体某个部位，如弯曲手指。心脏收缩和平滑肌收缩就不是被意识所控制的。器官壁内层的平滑肌，如胃肠壁的平滑肌把胃肠中的物质运送到全身。thecirculatorysystem.allpartsofthebodymusthavenourishmentandoxygeninordertofunctionandgrow,andtheirwasteproductsmustberemovedbeforetheyaccumulateandpoisonthebody.thecirculatorysystemdistributesneededmaterialsandremovesunneededones.itismadeupoftheheart,bloodvessels,andblood,whichtogethermakeupthecardiovascularsystem.thebloodisalsopartofthebodysdefensesystem.ithasantibodiesandwhitebloodcellsthatprotectthebodyagainstforeigninvaders.循环系统：机体的所有部分需要营养物质和氧气来使之发挥功能和生长，也需要在这些器官所产生的废物积聚而危害生命之前将其排除。循环系统运送有用物质，排泄废物。心血管系统是循环系统的组成之一；心血管系统包括心脏、血管及血液。血液也是机体防御系统的一个部分，血液中有抗体及白细胞来防止机体受到外来的侵袭。theheartisamusclethatisdividedintotwonearlyidenticalhalves:onehalfreceivesbloodfromthelungsandsendsittotherestofthebody,theotherhalfsendsbloodthathastraveledthroughthebodybacktothelungs.whentheheartmusclecontracts,thebloodisforcedoutintoarteriesandenterssmallcapillaries.bloodreturnstotheheartthroughveins.心脏是一块被分为几乎对等两半的肌肉。一半吸收来自肺部的血液，并将血液运送到机体的其余部位，另一半使流经全身的血液回流人肺。心脏收缩时，动脉把全身血液输送到毛细血管。静脉输送血液返回心脏。alsofunctioningincirculationisthelymphaticsystem.someofthefluidthatsurroundscellsdoesnotreenterthebloodvesselsdirectly.thisfluid,calledlymph,returnstotheheartbywayofanothersystemofchannels-thelymphvessels.lymphnodesalongthesevesselsfilterthefluidbeforeitreenterstheblood.thespleenisalargelymphaticorganthatfilterstheblood.淋巴系统也是循环系统的一个组成部分。一些细胞周围的体液不是直接回流入血管通道，这种体液叫淋巴液，它是流经另一个管道系统一一淋巴管而回流人心脏。沿淋巴管的淋巴结将淋巴液过滤，过滤后再回流人血液。脾是一个过滤血液的大淋巴器官。therespiratorysystemtakesinoxygenfromtheairandexpelscarbondioxideandwatervapor.airentersthenoseandmouthandtravelsthroughthelarynx,andtrachea.thetracheadividestoentereachofthetwolungsandthendividesmorethan20timestoformaverylargenumberofsmallairspaces.oxygenfromtheairentersthebloodthroughcapillariesinthewallsoftheseairspaces,andthebloodreleasecarbondioxideintotheairspacestobeexhaled.呼吸系统从空气中摄取氧气，并将二氧化碳、水蒸气排出体外。空气经鼻腔、口腔人喉管、气管。气管分成左右支气管，各连结左右肺，左右支气管再分枝20多次，在终端形成大量微小的肺泡。从空气摄取的氧气流经这些肺泡壁内的毛细血管流入血液，血液再经肺泡把释放出的二氧化碳排出体外。thedigestivesystemconsistsofatubeextendingfromthemouthtotheanus.init,foodandfluidsaretakenin,movedthroughthebody,andbrokendownintosmallmoleculesthatareabsorbedintothecirculatorysystem.thisbreakdown,knownasdigestion,isbothamechanicalandachemicalprocess.foodentersthroughthemouth,wherechewingandsalivastarttobreakitupandmakeiteasiertoswallow.next,thefoodtravelsdownthroughtheesophagustothestomach.contractionsofthestomachsmuscularwallcontinuetobreakdownthefoodmechanically,andchemicaldigestioncontinueswhenacidandenzymesaresecretedintothestomachcavity.消化系统是一个从口腔直到肛门的管道。食物和液体在消化道里被吸收，在肠道里移动时，被分解成小分子物质后再进入循环系统。这种分解，即消化，是一个机械过程，也是一个化学过程。食物进入口腔里，咀嚼和唾液开始将食物粉碎，使之便于吞咽。接着，食物经食管人胃。胃肌壁的收缩继续机械化地分解食物，而当酸和酶分泌入胃腔时，化学性消化开始。hefirstpartofthesmallintestine,calledtheduodenum,enzymesfromthepancreasareadded.theseenzymescompletethechemicalbreakdownofthefood.thedigestionoffatisaidedbybile,whichismadeintheliverandstoredinthegallbladder.thesmallintestineofanadultisabout21feet(6.4meters)long.mostofitslengthisdevotedtoabsorbingthenutrientsreleasedduringthesedigestiveactivities.液体化食物逐渐进入小肠。小肠的起始部分叫十二指肠，胰腺分泌的酶辅助食物消化。这些酶完成食物的化学分解。肝脏分泌的胆汁贮存在胆囊内，胆汁有助于脂肪消化。一个成年人的小肠有21英尺(6.4米)长。小肠的大部分肠段用来吸收消化过程中释放的营养物质。theliquidremainderofthefoodentersthelargeintestine,orcolon,whichisabout12feet(3.7meters)helargeintestinemostofthefluidisabsorbed,andtherelativelydryresiduesareexpelled.液状的剩余食物进入大肠，或结肠，它大约有12英尺(3.7米)长。大肠是小肠的两倍多宽。大部分液体在大肠内被吸收，相对干化的残余物被排出体外。theurinarysystemmaintainsnormallevelsofwaterandofcertainsmallmoleculessuchassodiumandpotassiuminthebody.itdoesthisbypassingbloodthroughthekidneys,twoefficientfilteringorgansthatgetridofanyexcessofvariousmoleculesandconservethosemoleculesthatareinshortsupply.泌尿系统维持水分及体内某些小分子物质，如钠、钾的正常水平。身体是通过让‘肾过滤血液来做到这一点的。肾是两个有效的过滤器官，它滤出各种多余的小分子物质，保留那些供应不足的小分子物质。thefluidthatleavesthekidneys,knownasurine,travelsthroughatubecalledtheuretertothebladd