管理基础理论与实践

IntroductionInthisassignmentisgoingtodoageneraldiscussionaboutthreeclassicmanagementtheories,theoryXandtheoryY,theoneminutemanagerandTotalqualitymanagement.ThepurposeistofigureoutwhichoneisofthegreatestvalueinChinain2012withcurrentphenomenonofenterprises.TheoryXandTheoryYTheoryXandTheoryYaretheoriesofhumanmotivationcreatedanddevelopedbyDouglasMcGregorattheMITSloanSchoolofManagement(1960)thathavebeenusedinhumanresourcemanagement,organizationalbehavior,organizationalcommunicationandorganizationaldevelopment.Theydescribetwocontrastingmodelsofworkforcemotivation.TheoryXandTheoryYhavetodowiththeperceptionsmanagersholdontheiremployees,notthewaytheygenerallybehave.InTheoryX,managementassumesemployeesareinherentlylazyandwillavoidworkiftheycanandthattheyinherentlydislikework.Asaresultofthis,managementbelievesthatworkersneedtobecloselysupervisedandcomprehensivesystemsofcontrolsdeveloped.Forexample,HaiergroupisalargeenterpriseinChina,establishedin1984.Thereisa"slopespheretheory"inHaierculturewhichmeansenterprisepositioninthemarketislikeaslopeball,theballneedsarisingforce(targetascension),makeitscontinuousdevelopmentupward;butalsorequiresthecheckpower(basicmanagement),preventitfell.MainlyDownforcesarefromtheinertiaofemployees,lackofconfidence,andblowsofchallenges.Whencheckforcegreaterthandownforce,Spherewillbeupwardalongtheslope.Sohighpressurecanmotivateemployees'vitalityandpotential,motivatethestaff'sworkingenthusiasm,such,thequalityofstaffalsowentup.Meanwhile,thecompanyalsoisfullofvitality;thecompany'sbenefitisimproved.Raisethecompany'sbenefitinturncanletemployeeshaveasenseofachievement.Finally,thisvirtuouscycleisverybeneficialtothedevelopmentofthecompany.InTheoryY,managementassumesemployeesmaybeambitiousandself-motivatedandexerciseself-control.Itisbelievedthatemployeesenjoytheirmentalandphysicalworkduties.Accordingtothemworkisasnaturalasplay.Lenovogroupisalargeenterprisehasdiversifieddevelopmentininformationindustrywhichwasestablishedin1984.Thereisa"enginetheory"inLenovoenterpriseculture:employeesasthe"engine",theyshouldself-activetoadvanceafterestablishedtargetofdirectionincustomerdemandbytogetherwithleaders,eveninitiativedrivesotherservicesforyourtarget.Workistoreflecttheirownvalue,staffsshouldhavestrongdesiretodobetter,therequirementsofthethingstheydobecometheyvoluntarily.Everyoneincompanyshouldrecognizethateachperson'ssuccesscouldhelpthecompanysuccess,andthegrowthofeachindividualiscloselylinkedwithcompanysuccess.TheoryXandTheoryYcommentWithoutadoubt,HaierandLenovoaretheoutstandingrepresentativesofenterprisesinChina.Theyaresuccessful,buttheemployee'smanagementtheoriesaretotallydifferent.Essentially,accordingtotheideaforemployeesmanagementofHaierbelongtoXtheoryandLenovoistheoryY,andbothareadaptedtotheenterprise'sactualsituation,theresthereasontheyhavebeenahugesuccess.So,whenisexactlytoapplythetheoryXortheoryY?TherearesomerevelationfromIchakAdizes(1988)enterpriselifecycletheory(seeExhibit1)andMaslow's(1970)PersonalityTheory(seeExhibit2).IchakAdize'stenstagesofcorporatelife-cycleIVORCEInternalFocusAFFAtREFlexibility<>Control□DEATHAGINGGROWINGARISTOCRACYAINFANCYPiRECRIMINATION(SALEMCITY}AIchakAdize'stenstagesofcorporatelife-cycleIVORCEInternalFocusAFFAtREFlexibility<>Control□DEATHAGINGGROWINGARISTOCRACYAINFANCYPiRECRIMINATION(SALEMCITY}AUNFULF^LEDENTREPRENEUREExternalFcxiitsCO-GOAfEIPRIME ”PAEQf £PREMATUftEAGINGICE AQFOUNDERSORFAMILYTRAPPE7tNFANTMOflTALtTYPQBUHEAUCRAC*Exhibit1Source:IchakAdize'stenstagesofcorporatelife-cycleFromthepointofviewoftheenterprise,therearefourmainstagesinenterprisedevelopment:foundingstage(Courtship),growthstage(InfancytoPrime),maturestage(afterPrimetoAristocracy),recessionstage(afterAristocracy).Inthefoundingstage,enterprise'smainpurposeistosurviveinthemarket,therefore,thereisnostandardizemanagementproblemsinthisstage.Inthegrowthstage,unifiedoperationmodeandunifiedenterprisedevelopmentworkprocesshasbecomenecessary.Butnotallofthestaffscanadapttothedevelopmentofenterprise,then,enterprisemustadoptcompulsoryandcontrolmeanstostrengthenemployees'behaviour.Managementconceptinthisstagealwaystrendtoforced,strengthenandcontrolwhichistheoryXpattern.Thetimesforeachenterprise'sgrowthstagearedifferent,becauseenterpriseinthefaceofdifferentactualsituationandgrowthstagecannottobeavoided.Afterthegrowth,employeebehaviourhaskeptconsistentwiththerequirementofthecompany.Inaccordancewithcompanypolicies,andprocessworkhasbeeninternalizedaspartofstaffs'dailyhabit,andtheyhavebeenabletoselfcontrolandcreationintheenterprisestandardrange.Atthistime,themanagersshouldchangethemanagementconcepttotheoryY.Maslow'sPersonalityTheoryEsteempresltigeandFeelinginlirratcrelalioifullpollincludingactualii□chievricoefiviEsteempresltigeandFeelinginlirratcrelalioifullpollincludingactualii□chievricoefivi5elPsychotogicnlrwedsSafetyneeds;Basicsecurity,safelyBasicPhysiologicalneeds;food,wateqwormth,,resI-Exhibit2Source:Maslow'sPersonalityTheoryWhenpeopleinthelowerlevel,suchasphysiologicalneedtoandsafetyneedshaven'tbeensatisfied,thesituationismoreaccordwiththeoryXhypothesis,compulsoryandcontrolforincentiveandpunishisrelativelymoresensitivetoemployees;whenthesetwolevelsgetmeet,esteemneedsandbelongingnessandloveneedswillreplacethemaspsychologicalneeds.Atthistime,ifthemanagementisstillfocustheirattentiononthephysicalneeds,wantstoincentiveemployeesthroughpayhigherwages,providegoodworkingconditions,orattractivebenefits,theresultswillbenolongerapparent.Inotherwords,whenpeople'sbasicphysiologicalneedsandsafetyneedsgetmeet,theoryXreachtoitscriticalpointofeffectiveness,fromnowon,theoryYismoreeffective.Managersneedtochangetheincentivesmeasures,paymoreattentiontoemployees'esteemneeds,belongingnessandloveneedsandself-actualizationneeds.Encourageemployeestoplaytotheirenthusiasmandinitiative,givehimacertaindegreeoffreedomtocontroltheirownactivities.Sothatemployeesrealizetheirowninterestsandthedevelopmentofenterprisesiscloselyrelatedto,resultinginastrongsenseofresponsibilityandsenseofaccomplishment.TheoryZTheoryZisessentiallyahumanisticapproachtomanagementthatlooksattheorganisationasawhole.Ouchi(1981)describedorganisationsas“clans”,statingthatclancultureischaracterisedbyhomogeneityofvalues,beliefsandobjectives.Clancultureemphasisesthe“socialisation”ofallmemberstoachieveclan(organisational)goals.Thisuniversalcommitmentbyallclan(organisation)membersleadsto:LongtermemploymentTheindividualandtheorganisationarecommittedtoeachothersprosperity,engenderinggreaterloyaltyonbothsides.ConsensualdecisionmakingAllmembersareinvolvedasopposedtotypicalhierarchicaldecisionmakingorganisations.IndividualresponsibilityAsallmembersarecommittedtoachievingclan(organisational)goals,theytakeindividualresponsibilityfortheirownperformance.Slowevaluationandpromotion.Thelongertermcommitmentofemployee'sallowsmoreindepth,longertermassessmentofindividualsandidentificationofthemostsuitablecandidatesforpromotion.Informalcontrol/FormalisedmeasuresTypeZorganisationsexhibitinformalcontrolmethodswhilstretainingperformancemeasuresthroughformalmechanisms.ModeratelyspecialisedcareerpathCareerpathsarenotasspecialisedasinmostAmericanorganisationsbutmorespecialisedthantraditionalJapaneseorganisations.HolisticconcernConcernforfellowemployeesgoesbeyondtheworkplace.TheoryZcommentTheoryYandtheoryZhasessentialdifference.TheoryYisbasedonthewesternliberalismandindividualism,moreemphasizeonautonomy;theoryZemphasizecooperation,thewesternliberalismandindividualismisnotadvisable,butcooperation.Forinstance,Intelsuccessfullinksindividualstogetherwithcompany,thestaffsareindividuals,atthesametime;theyarealsothemembersofthecompany.Managersarerequiredtobeabletoacknowledgeandacceptemployees'mistakes,alsoabletolearnfromemployees'advantages.Organizationmanagementtrendstoinvolveopencommunication,ethics,staffdevelopment,long-termcommitmentandcollectivecooperation.OneminutemanagerTheOneMinuteManagerrevealsthreesecretstoproductiveandefficientmanagingastoldthroughayoungman'ssearchfortheperfectmanagingandleadingskills.TheOneMinuteManagerisfocusedon,notsurprisingly,aoneminutemanager.Themanisavenerableleaderthatishighlyspokenofbyhisemployees,histhreesecretsbeingthekeytohissuccess.ThefirstsecretisOneMinuteGoals.Thisinvolvesameetingofthemanagerandtheemployeewheregoalsareagreedon,writtendowninabriefstatement,andoccasionallyreviewedtoensurethatproductivityisoccurring.Thiswholeprocesstakesa"minute",whichtrulymeansitisaquickmeeting,howeveritisnotlimitedtojustsixtyseconds.Thepurposeofoneminutegoalsettingistoconfirmthatresponsibilitiesofeachworkingisunderstood,understandingthatconfusionleadstoinefficiencyanddiscouragement.Thesecondsecrettooneminutemanagingisoneminutepraising.Thisinvolvesbeingopenwithpeopleabouttheirperformance.Whenyoucatchsomeonedoingsomethingright,agoaloftheoneminutemanager,youpraisethemimmediately,tellingthemspecificallywhattheydidcorrectly.Pausetoallowthemto"feel"howgoodyoufeelregardingtheirimportancetotheorganization,andfinishbyshakinghands.Thethirdsecretistheoneminutereprimand.Beinghonestwiththosearoundyouinvolvesreprimandingwhenawronghasoccurred.Thefirststepistoreprimandimmediatelyandspecifically.Thisisthesameasthesecondsecret,anditholdsanimportantaspectofthefirstsecret:itenablesanunderstandingofresponsibilitiesandhowtocompletethemcorrectly.Followingthereprimand,shakehandsandremindthepersonthatheorsheisimportantanditwassimplytheirperformancethatyoudidnotlike.Theoneminutereprimandconsistsofthereprimandandthereassurance,bothbeingequallyimportant.Ifyouleavethelatterout,youwillnotbelikedbythosearoundyouandtheywillattributemistakestothembeingworthless,whichisfarfromthetruth.ThecaserelatedtooneminutemanagerreferenceNokiaincentivesystem.IncentivesystemisaveryimportantcomponentofsuccessforNokia.NokialaunchedaprojectcalledIIP(InvestinPeople):twotimeshighqualityconversationeveryyear,toevaluatestaff'sbusinessperformance;ontheotherhandtohelpemployeesknowtheirpotentialandstrengths,skillsandtrainingoftheposttheyareinterest.Thus,tocleardefineandeffectivecommunicateabouteachemployee'sworkgoalanddevelopment.OneminutemanagercommentWhyistheoneminutegoaleffective?OneminutegoalactuallyistheapplicationoftheSMARTprinciple(Specific、Measurable、Attainable、Realistic、Timely).Andinthisbook,writingmorespecificforoperation.Forexample,“Writeouteachofyourgoalsonasinglesheetofpaperusinglessthan250words”and“Read andre-readeachgoal,whichrequiresonlyaminuteorsoeach”.Thesegivelearnersmoreclearoperationguide.Whyistheoneminutepraiseeffective?Levy'smottoisquitesuitablytoanswerthisquestion:“Helppeoplereachtheirfullpotential,catchthemdoingsomethingright”.Eachpersonhasstrengthsandweaknesses.Asamanagercannotonlyfocusontheweaknessoftheemployees,theyshouldpaymoreattentiononstrengths.Becausetheresponsibilityofmanagersistocultivatetalents,andthisneedsmanagersthroughobservation,understandemployees'strengthsintheirwork,togivepraisetimely.Praiseistheimportantpowerfornewemployees'growth.Whyistheoneminutereprimandeffective?Thereisaspecialemphasisinthebookthatthesituationtouseoneminutereprimand:iftheyhavetheabilitytodosomething,butdidn'tdo,youshoulddooneminutecriticism.Suchapremisecanbeunderstoodasbecausepeoplearepossibletomeettheproblemaboutburnout,negligence,attitudeschange.Ifnoonecantimelyremind,itislikelytocreateagreatharmtoorganization.Totalqualitymanagement(TQM)Totalqualitymanagement(TQM)isamanagementphilosophyandstrategydesignedtoinvolveallmembersofanorganizationintheprocessandresponsibilityforproducingqualityproductsandservices.TotalqualitymanagementisbasedontheideasofDeming,W.Edwards(1986),PhilipB.Crosby(1979)andJosephM.Juran(1951)expertsinquality-controlintheUnitedStatesandJapan.TQMfunctionsonthepremisethatthequalityofproductsandprocessesistheresponsibilityofeveryonewhoisinvolvedwiththecreationorconsumptionoftheproductsorservicesofferedbyanorganization.Inotherwords,TQMcapitalizesontheinvolvementofmanagement,workforce,suppliers,andevencustomers,inordertomeetorexceedcustomerexpectations.ConsideringthepracticesofTQMasdiscussedinsixempiricalstudies,Cua,McKone,andSchroeder(2001)identifiedtheninecommonTQMpracticesascross-functionalproductdesign,processmanagement,supplierqualitymanagement,customerinvolvement,informationandfeedback,committedleadership,strategicplanning,cross-functionaltraining,andemployeeinvolvement.Totalqualitymanagementisacomprehensivemanagementphilosophy,requesttocontroleverylinkandeverystageofproducts'quality;it'sawholeprocessofqualitymanagement;requesteverystaffs'participation,eventhewholesocietytoparticipate.ThereasonsforTQM'ssignificancecanbesimplysummarizeasfollow:improveproductquality;improveproductdesign;Accelerationoftheproductionprocess;encouragedemployees;reducingmanagementqualitycost;reduceoperatinglosses;reducefieldmaintenancecost;reduceliabilityaccident.improveproductafter-saleservice;increaseproduct'sacceptanceinthemarket;ThereisasuccessfulTQMexampleinChina.Mr.ChengBinDUappointedtobetheGeneralManagerofChengDuXiWangFoodCO.,LTD,asmallfactorywhichwasonthebrinkofbankruptcy13yearsago.Mr.Duactivelystickstoqualityreformandmadehiscompanyhadbecometheindustryleading.Intheproductionprocess,thecompanyfocusonthestandard.Ithasstrictoperationprocedureandstricttestingproceduresandsetupaperfectqualitytrackingsystem,launchofallemployeestoparticipateinqualitymanagement.Heorganizedaqualityteamhasmorethan100peopleineverymajorproductiondistributionpost,andimplementstrictmanagement,apracticevoteveto.Atthesametime,thecompanyimplementsthequantifiedstandardmanagement,establishedasetofqualityassurancemanual,22programfiles,272kindsofassignmentsprocedures,108itemstandards,635qualityrecords,andpassedtheISO9002internationalqualitysystemauthentication.XiWangCompanyrealizedthestandardized,scientificandsystematizedofqualitymanagement.Totalqualitymanagement(TQM)commentTotalqualitymanagement(TQM)originatedintheUnitedStatesbyDeming,W.Edwards(1986),Japaneselearnedtheideasandexperienceofworkerstoparticipateinthemanagement,threeinspectionsystem,three-in-onecombination,rationalizationproposalactivities,TQMplaysanindelibleroleforJapan'seconomicleapforward.WhyTQMdoesn'thassuchabiginfluenceinothercountries?Mr.GongCheng(2005)providesaverygoodreferencefromthepointofviewoftheenterpriseculture.Accordingtotheconnotationofenterpriseculture,hedividedenterprisecultureintothreetypes:enterprising,mildandcontrariantype.Enterprisingcultureis:theyunderstandtheirbusinessenvironmentverywell,valueandmoralideasclearly,strongqualityconsciousness.Thesecompanieshaveinnovationbehaviour,andhaveagoodlearningclimate;Inaddition,theydon'trejectforeignqualityculture,easytoabsorbanddigestionandsoon.Mildcultureis:althoughtheyunderstandtheirbusinessenvironmentverywell,valueandmoralideasclearly,strongqualityconsciousness.Buttheyarelackofinitiativefortheinnovationofenterpriseculture,studypowershortage;theyarewillingtoabsorbthequalityofforeignculture,buteasytoretreatoncetheyrunintoresistanceandsoon.Contrariancultureis:theyarecompleteconservative,valueandmoralconceptisnotT p・ clear,qualityconsciousnessisweak,noinnovationconsciousness,rejecttoforeignqualitymanagementconcept,andnostudyclimateandsoon.AfterTQMsuccessinJapan,theUnitedStatestriedtodoso,butreceivedtoolittle.ThereasonistheenterpriseculturewiththeUnitedStatesisnotsuitablewithTQM,mainlyisthemanagementintheU.S.toemployeesisveryloose,personalheroismismorepopular.Itdoesn'tconformtotheconditionsoftoachievethegoaloftotalqualitymanagement.Oppositely,manyJapanesecompanies'enterpriseculturewasenterprisinginthattime.TheyactivelylearnthequalitymanagementconceptfromW.EEdwards.Deming,andcontinuetodigest,tomakethesuccess.ConclusionInthesethreemanagementtheorymentionabove,TQMshouldbemostsuitableforthedevelopmentofcontemporaryChina,isoneofthemostvaluableinChinain2012.The20thcenturyisthecenturyofproductivity,inthe21stcenturyisthecenturyofquality(JosephM.Juran2010).Therapiddevelopmentofeconomicglobalizationcausesasituationthatcoexistenceofopportunitiesandchallenges.SinceChinajointheWTOasa"worldfactory",Chineseenterprisesenjoythebenefits,atthesametime,theyarefacingaseriouschallenge,qualityproblems,suchasfoodqualityproblems.Qualityplaysanimportantroleinmodernsocietyeconomicdevelopment.Intoday'sincreasinglycompetitivemarket,thecoresofcompetitionaretechnologyandquality.Qualitycanbeseenasasignofsocialprogressandthedevelopmentofproductivity,italsorelatedtoacountry'sreputationintheinternationalsociety.Theproductqualityisthecornerstoneofthebrandvalue;itmanifeststhecontentofenterprise'stechnologyandculture.Noneofproductscansurviveafteralongtimeonlyreliesonitscheaperpricewithoutproperquality(ShiMingXu2012).TheimageofChineseproductsintheinternationalmarketispricecheaperandpoorquality,thisisbecauseChineseenterprises'qualityconceptandqualitymanagementsystemisbackward.Qualityisthebestguaranteeofmaintaincustomerloyalty.ItisparticularlysignificanttopayattentiontoproductqualityforChineseenterprises.Withoutexception,thoseextraordinaryenterprisesinChinaarepayingattentiontoestablishqualityasthecoreoftheenterprisemanagement.Forexample,HandanIron&SteelGroupCo.Ltd.'sCostandqualitymanagementvetosystem;Haier'squalitymanagementvetosystemandEastHopeGroup'sSystematicqualitymanagement.Thesesystemshavehelpedenterpriseswithhighspeedandhighefficientdevelopment,andcreategoodconditionsforintotheworldmarket,wonthehighreputationinthemarket.CurrentphenomenonandproblemsofChineseenterprisesChineseenterprisesarecontinuouspracticetoenhancetheunderstandingofTQMsincethe70s,improvetheapplicationlevelofTQM.Butthereisstillahugegapcomparedwiththedevelopedcountries,aapplicationofTQMisstillattheprimarystage.Andtherearesomeproblemsasfollow:TheapplicationofTQMtheoryislagandsuperficialBasically,mostlyChineseenterprises'qualitymanagementlevelisstillstayonqualityinspectionstage.Also,theyexpecttohavetheresultsassoonaspossible,aslongasTQMimplementationimmediatelywillhavesignificantresultspresent.Theseenterprisesclaimimplementationoftotalqualitymanagement,butonlyinordertopursuethetimelybenefits.Infact,thisisnottheimprovementofqualityandperformance;alsocan'treducecostandincreaseincome.Resultinmanagementstrategywasforcedtochangebeforethearrivaloftherealharvest.IgnorethedemandofmarketandcustomersTQMintheseenterprises'interiorgotfullyuse,production,organization,management,andotherprocessarestrictlyinaccordancewiththerequirementsofTQM.Buttheystillendedinfailure.Becausetheyignorethefirstgoalisforcustomer,onlyfocusontheprocessoforganization,trainingandimprovement,notappliedthesetoimprovecustomersatisfaction,improveproductqualityandmarketshare,andthen,losetheircustomers.MistakenforonlyneedtotrainthestaffAsTQM,itsoperationrequirementisfullparticipation.Butinsomeenterprises,topmanagersthinkTQMisthebusinessofqualitycontroldepartmentandworkersoftheoperationdepartment,theyhavenothingtodowiththis.Whentheproblemoccurred,justpushresponsibilitytothequalitymanagementdepartment.PDCAcycleInviewoftheaboveproblems,inordertorealizeeffectiveimplementationoftotalqualitymanagementinChineseenterprises,intheconcreteimplementationprocess,itcanbeinaccordancewiththefourstepsofthePDCAcycle:PlanningWiththeimplementationofTQM,firstly,enterprise'stopmanagersmustcomprehensiveaccesstotheenterprisequalitycondition,andthenmakeacorrespondingstrategyplan,andorganizeteamsfortaskdivision.Middlemanagersshouldthefirmrockinmidstream,tospecificcoordinationandresponsibleforallrelatedtasks.DoFirstly,totop-downTQMpopularization,organizestaffstostudyandresearchtotalqualitymanagement,inordertoensurewholeenterpriseunderstoodcorrectlyinqualityandqualitymanagementwhichcanbereflectedinthefutureworking.Throughthetraining,letenterprisestaffstoprofoundlyunderstandcustomerfirstandhighqualityisthemostbasicrequirementsofcustomersfirst.Throughtherelatedstudyandmakeappropriateadjustmentstoenterprise'scultureandmanagementformstodevelopagoodenterpriseculture.Secondly,establishIS09000qualitysystemandstandardsrelevanttovariousactivitiesintheenterpriseinternalthatinordertomeasuretheeffectivenessandefficiencyofenterprise'sresourcesintheoperationprocess.Andthebasicworkshouldbecompletedfirstwhensettingupqualitymanagementsystem,includingstandardizedindex,training,collectionandarrangementofinformationandresponsibilitysystem.Then,enterprisechoosestherightqualityassurancemodel,andsetupadocumentedqualitysystem,suchasqualitymanuals,etcwhichshouldaccordingtoitsactualsituation.Thirdly,fromthebeginningoftheorganizationoflearningTQMshouldbesystematicmanagementwhichmeansfullparticipationandqualitycontrolandmanagementinthewholecourse.Andfullyarousetheenthusiasmofalllevelsintheenterprise;tomobilizeallisinvolvedin.Becausefullparticipationisbettertobenefitenterprisefromemployeesandrealachievetotalqualitycontrolandmanagementinthewholeprocess.Fourthly,organizationandcoordinationplayacrucia