新编简明英语语言学教程 戴伟栋版

新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版xxx公司新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版文件编号：文件日期：修订次数：第1.0次更改批准审核制定方案设计，管理制度新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1.Thedefinitionandmainbranchesoflinguisticsstudy语言学的定义和研究范围2.ImportantdistinctioninLinguistic语言学的一些重要区分3.Thedefinitionandthedesignfeaturesoflanguage语言的定义和识别特征4.Functionoflanguage语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,Thedefinitionoflinguistics语言的定义：Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage(basedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetogeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure)2.Thescopeoflinguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）:thestudyofthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication.Phonology（音系学）:thestudyofhowsoundsputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式)Morphology（形态学）:thestudyofthewayinwhichthesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords.Syntax（句法学）:thestudyofrulesinthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguage.Semantics（语义学）:thestudyofmeaning.Pragmatics（语用学）:thestudyofthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics:thestudyofallsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwiththesocietyformthecoreofthebranch.Psycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguageanditsrelationwithpsychology.Appliedlinguistics:thestudyofapplicationoflanguagetothesolutionofpracticalproblems.Narrowlyitistheapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.3.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学中的重要区分A:DescriptivevsPrescriptive描写式与规定式Descriptive:ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Prescriptive:ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhatshouldtheysayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobePrescriptive.B:SynchronicvsDiachronic共时性和历时性Synchronic:thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy.Diachronic:thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.C:Speechvswriting言语和文学Thesearemajormediaofcommunication.D:Languevsparole语言与言语(Saussure索緖尔)Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbytheallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Parole:referstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse.E:Competencevsperformance语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基)Competence:referstoauser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemoftherules.Performance:referstotheactualuseinconcretesituations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。乔姆斯基从心理学角度看待语言，对他而言，语言能力是每个个体的大脑特征。E:TraditionalGrammarvsmodernlinguistics传统语法与现代语言学Saussure的《CourseinGeneralLinguistics》标志着现代语言学的开端。区别：a:语言学是descriptive,传统的语法是prescriptive.b:现代语言学认为口头语是基本的，而不是书面语。c:现代语言学并不强迫进入一个拉丁语为基础的框架。4.Thedefinitionoflanguage语言的定义Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.5.Thedesignfeaturesoflanguage语言的识别特征Thedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguagecanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichdistinguishitfromanimallanguagesystem.A：Arbitrariness任意性Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningandsounds.B：Productivity能产性Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.C：Duality二重性Twolevels:Atthelowerorthebasiclevelisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Athigherlevel,thesoundsoflanguagecanberegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning.D：Displacement移位性Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaingedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.E：Culturaltransmission文化传递Languageisculturallytransmitted.F：Interchangeability互换性Referstomancanbothproduceorreceivethemassages.6.Functionsoflanguage语言的功能A：mainfunctions(1)Descriptivefunction(描述):referstoconveyfactualinformation,whichcanbestatedordenied,andevenverified.(2)Expressivefunction(表达):referstoemotiveorattitudinalfunction,conveyinformationaboutuser’sfeelings,preferences,prejudice,andvalues.(3)Socialfunction(社会):referstointerpersonalfunction,servestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.Jakobson将语言功能划分六大类：emotive,conative(意动),referential(指向),poetic(娱乐),phaticcommunication(寒暄),andmatalinguistic(元语言).B：macrofunctions(1)Ideational(概念):Itistoorganizethespeaker’sorwriter’sexperienceoftherealorimaginaryworld.(2)Interpersonal(人际):Itistoindicate,establish,ormaintainsocialrelationshipsbetweenpeople.(3)Textual:Itistoorganizethewrittenorspokentextsinacoherentmanner,andfittheparticularsituationinwhichtheyareused.注意知识点：1.Onomatopoeicwords(拟声词)canNOTshowarbitrarynatureoflanguage.(拟声词并不能表示语言的任意性，有些拟声词和所表达的事物是有联系的。)2.聋哑人所使用的语言也是语言。3.语言的改变并不是任意的，而是遵循社会规律的。4.语言是在人类出现一段时间后出现的。第2章音位学本章要点：1.Speechorgans发音器官2.Distinction,classificationandthecriteriaofdescriptionbetweenconstantsandvowels辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则3.Phonemesandallophones音位和音位变体4.Phonologicalruleanddistinctivefeatures音系规则和区别特征5.Syllablestructure,stressandintonation音节结构、重音和语调本章考点：语音学：语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记；严式标音法和宽式标音法。音系学：音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的区别；音素，音位，音位变体最小对立体，自由变体的定义；自由变体；音位对立分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音，句子重音）；音高和音调。本章内容索引：1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage2.Phonetics语音学(1)Thedefinitionofphonetics(2)Threeresearchfields(3)Organsofspeech(4)Voicelesssounds(5)Voicedsounds(6)Orthographicrepresentationsofspeechsounds——broadandnarrowtranscriptions(7)ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsA:DefinitionB:ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsC:ClassificationofEnglishvowels3.Phonology(1)Relationshipbetweenphonologyandphonetics(2)Phone,phonme(3)Allophone(4)SomerulesinphonologyA:SequentialrulesB:AssimilationruleC:Deletionrule(5)Supra-segmentalfeatures:stress,tone,intonationA:stressB:toneC:intonation1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage2.Phonetics语音学(1)ThedefinitionofphoneticsPhonetics:isdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumofEnglishlanguage.Itconcernswiththesoundsthatoccurintheworld’languages.(2)Threeresearchfields三大研究领域考点名词解释A:Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学:thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.B:Acousticphonetics声学语音学:thestudyofphysicalproperties(特征)ofspeechsounds.C:Perceptualphonetics感知语音学:referstotheperceptionofspeechsounds.(3)OrgansofspeechVocalorgans:lungs,trachea(气管),throat,nose,andmouth.(4)Voicelesssounds清音Thesoundproducedwithoutcausingthevibrationofthevocalcords(声带).(5)Voicedsounds浊音Thesoundproducedwithcausingthevibrationofthevocalcords(声带).(6)Orthographicrepresentationsofspeechsounds——broadandnarrowtranscriptions语音正字表——宽式和严式标音A:Broadtranscriptions:transcriptionwiththelettersymbolsonly(一般用于词典和教学)B:Narrowtranscriptions:transcriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(变音符号).(语言学家在语言研究中使用)IPA:InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(国际音标)产生于19世纪末。(7)ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds语音的分类A:Definitiona:Consonants:soundsareproducedbyconstrictingthevocaltractatsomeplacestodivert,impedeorcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.b:Vowels:soundsproducedwithoutobstruction,sonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheairintheoralcavity.B:ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsa:intermsofthemannersofarticulation(发音方式):Stops(爆破音):pbtdkg6Fricatives(摩擦音):/f//v//θ//ð//s//z//ʃ//ʒ/h//r/8Affricatives(塞擦音):/tʃ//dʒ/Liquids(清音):/l//r/Nasals(鼻音):/m,n,η/Glides(滑音):/wj/b:intermsofplaceofarticulation(发音部位)bilabials(双唇音):/pbmw/labiodentals(唇齿音):/fv/dentals(齿音):/ð//θ/alveolars(齿龈音):/tdnlrs/6palatals(腭音):/jʃʒtʃd/5velars(软腭音):/kgη/glottal(喉音):/h/C:ClassificationofEnglishvowelsa:thepositionofthetoneinmouth:front,central,back,b:theopennessofthemouth:closedsemi-closedsemi-openandopen.c:theshapeofthelips:roundedandunroundedd:thelengthofthevowels:tenseandlaxorlongandshort3.Phonology(1)RelationshipbetweenphonologyandphoneticsSimilarity:Bothconcernedwiththespeechsounds.Differences:ApproachandFocus.Phonetics:generalnature,itisinterestedinallhumanlanguages.Phonology:howspeechsoundsformpatternsandhowsoundsconveymeanings.(2)Phone,Phoneme考点Phone:Itisabasicunitofphoneticstudy,aminimalsoundsegmentthathumanspeechcanproduce.Butdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phoneme:Itisabasicunitofphonologicalstudy.Itisanabstractcollectionofphoneticfeatureswhichcandistinguishmeaning.(3)Allophone:Thedifferentrealizationsofthesamephonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentarecalledallophones.（同一个音位在不同的语音环境中的实现方式被称为音位的音位变体）（1）complementarydistribution:whentwoormoreallophonesofthesamephonemedonotdistinguishmeaningandoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments,thentheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.(当同一个音位的两个或两个以上的音位变体不区别意义，并且出现在不同的语音环境中，那么他们被称作处于互补分布)（2）Freevariation:如果两个音素出现在同一个相同的语音环境中，并不区别意义，即用一个音素去替换另一个音素不产生新词，仅仅产生同一个词的不同读音。那么这两个音素就可被视为自由变体。（3）Phonemiccontrast:语音相似的音如果是区别性音位，那么可以说他们形成了一个音位对立。如“k”和“g”在cut和gut是两个不同的音位，这两个词除了出现在同一位置上的一个音外，其余的音都一样，因此这两个词就构成了最小对立体minimalpairs。音位对立指的是能够造成意义差别的语音差别，比如mate和late，每一个单词的第一个辅音都能造成音位差别，因此形成音位对立。最小对立体就是两个对立的音位只有一个语音特征不同，其他语音特征都相同。比如pate和bate中的[p]和[b]，都是辅音、都是爆破音、都是双唇音，但有一点不一样，前者是清辅音，后者是浊辅音。相反，[m]和[p]就不能形成最小对立体，因为它们虽然都是辅音、都是唇音，但至少有两个语音特征不同：除了清浊不同外，一个是鼻音，一个是爆破音。(4)Somerulesinphonology音位学的一些规则A:thesequentialrulesTherearerulestogovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,andtheserulesarecalledsequentialrules.某一特定语言的语言模式是受规则支配的，这就叫做序列规则。例如：如果一个单词的以L开头，那后面接的必须是元音。B:theassimilationrule同化规则同化指一个音具有了临近音的一部分或者全部特征的这一过程，包括鼻化，齿化，鄂化。同化规则通过“拷贝”序列音位的一个特征来将一个音同化为另一个，从而使两个音相似。相邻近的同化多半是由发音或者生理过程引起的。我们说话时，倾向于增加发音的舒适度，这种懒惰的倾向可能会被规律化，作为语言的规则。例如：[I:]在beangreenteam单词中，[I:]会被鼻音化。C:deletionrule省略规则省略规则告诉我们在什么时候省略一个语音，虽然这个音在正字法上是仍有体现。例如：g在单词sign，design中是不发音的，但在完整的signature和designation中的g是发音的。(5).supra-segmentalfeatures:stress,toneandintonation超切分特征：重音，音调，语调A:单词和句子的重音，重音可以区分意义。'digestn.摘要di'gestv.消化Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.B:音调是由声带vocalcord的不同震动引起的。C:语调涉及出现的升降模式，每个模式都应用于相对一致的意义。注意点：Speechismorebasicthanwriting的原因：A:linguisticevolution’view,speechispriortowriting.B:ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwriting(amountofinformationconveyed)C:nativespeakersacquiretheirmothertonguebyspeech.D:spokenlanguagerevealmoretruefeaturesofhumanspeech.phone与phoneme区别Aphoneisphoneticunitorsegment,thespeechsoundwehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Aphonemeisnotaparticularsound,whichisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Allophones:clearlanddarklareallophonesofthephonemel.3.cardinalvowels基本元音英国音位学家DanielJonesChapter5Semantics1.Definition1.命名论ThenamingtheoryProposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor,sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.(缺点：仅限于名词)2.意念论TheconceptualistviewOgdenandRichardsItholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Herearetwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandthelinguisticcontext.4.行为主义论BehaviorismItreferstotheattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe”situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.Thistheorysomewhatclosetoconceptualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.2.Lexicalmeaning:Sense:itisconcernedwithinherentmeaningoflinguisticform;itisthecollectionofallfeaturesoflinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Reference:itmeansthelinguisticformreferstothereal,physicalworld.Itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.3.Mainsenserelations1.同义词SynonymyItreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.(1)Dialectalsynonyms—synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects（方言）BritishAmericaAutumfallFlatapartment(2)Stylisticsynonyms---Synonymsdifferinginstyle（文体）Oldmandaddyfathermaleparent(3)Synonymsthatdifferentintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning（情感）CollaboratorVSAccomplice(4)Collocationalsynonyms（搭配）AccuseVSCharge（accuse…of;charge…with）RottentomatoesVSAddledeggs(5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms（语义）AmazeVSAstound2.多义词PolysemyItreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Ball:1,aroundobjectusedingame.2.alargeformalsocialeventatwhichpeopledance.3.同音(形)异义HomonymyItreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavedifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.1.Homophones同音异义Itreferstotwowordsareidenticalinsound.e.g.rain/reign.2.Homographs同形异义Itreferstotwowordsareidenticalinform.e.g.tearv./tearn.3.Completehomonyms同形同音Itreferstowordsthatarebothidenticalinsoundandspelling.e.g.tearv./tearn.6.上下义关系HyponymyItreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Superordinate:animalSubordinate:cat,dog,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fox,bear,7.反义词AntonymyIt’sthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.gradable:等级反义词old-youngcomplementary：互补反义词male-femalerelational:关系father-sonbuy-sell4.Sentencesenserelations:1.XissynonymouswithY（同义）Eg.Heisabachelorallhislife.Henevermarriedallhislife.XisinconsistentwithY（不一致）Eg.JohnismarriedJohnisabachelor.XentailsY（附属）Eg.HehasbeentoFrance.HehasbeentoEurope.XpresupposeY（Y是X的先决条件）Eg.John’sbikeneedsreparing.Johnhasabike.Xisacontradiction（X是一个矛盾句）Eg.Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.Xissemanticallyanomalous.（语义异常）Eg.Thetablehasbadintensions.5.Analysisofmeaning1.ComponentialAnalysis成分分析法----分析词汇抽象意义It’sawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Eg.Man=Adult+Male+Animate+Human2.PredicationAnalysis述谓结构分析(由BritishLinguistG.Leech提出)It’sanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.Predicationisusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandsect.(通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)3.先设前提PresuppositionIt’sasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.ApresupposesB.4.蕴涵EntailmentEntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtowsentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceB.A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.B:Markmarriedablonde.第6章pragmatics本章要点：1.speechacttheory言语行为的理论2.cooperativeprincipleanditsmaxins合作原则及其准则3.Griceantheoryofconventionalimplicature格莱斯会话含义理论本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）；合作原则。实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。本章内容索引：1．PragmaticsDefinitionPragmatics&semanticsContextSentencemeaningvsutterancemeaning2．SpeechacttheoryAustin’smodelofspeechactsSearl’sclassificationofspeechactsIndirectspeechacts3．PrincipleofconversionCooperativeprincipleanditsmaxinsViolationofthemaxins4．ConversationalimplicatureDefinitionCharacteristicsofconversationalimplicativeCalculabilityCancellabilityNon-detachabilityNon-conventionality5．Cross-culturalpragmaticsfailure1．PragmaticsDefinitionItisthestudyofspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Pragmatics&semanticsIfthecontextwastakenintothestudyofmeaning,thenthestudycallspragmatics.ContextA:Definition:Itisgenerallyconsideredastheknowledgethatsharedbythespeakerandhearer.B:Significance:Itdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguageandthehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.Withcontext,thecommunicationwouldachievesatisfactoryresult.SentencemeaningvsUtterancemeaning句子意义和话语意义Sentencemeaning:abstractandde-contextualized.Utterancemeaning:concreteandcontextdependent,andbasedonsentencemeaning.2．SpeechacttheoryAustin’smodelofspeechactsA:Anlocutionaryact(言内行为)：anactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Literalmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.B:Anillocutionaryact(言外行为)：anactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention.C:Anperlocutionaryact(言后行为)：anactofperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;theconsequenceorchangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;Searl’s(瑟尔)classificationofspeechactsA:Representatives(阐述类):statingordescribing,sayingsomethingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.陈述，相信，发誓Eg:IswearIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.B:directives(指令类)：Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.advise，ask，beseech，command，demand，order，request，tell，urge。Eg：openthedoor!C:Commissives(承诺类)：mit，consent，guarantee，offer，pledge，promise，refuse，threaten。Eg：Ipromisetocome!D:Expressives(表达类)：expressingthefeelingorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.apologize，boast，congratulate，deplore，regret，thank，welcomeEg：IamsorryforthemessIhavemade.E:Declarations(宣告类)：bringaboutimmediatechangebysayingsomething.appoint，bless，christen，declare，name，nominate，resignEg:Ifireyou.Indirectspeechacts(developedbySearl)Twospeechacts:Theprimary:speaker’sgoalofcommunicationThesecond:meansbywhichheachieveshisgoal.3．PrincipleofconversionCooperativeprincipleanditsmaxins(PaulGrice)A:themaximofquantity量的准则:(youarewhatyousay)Makeyourcontributioninformativeasrequired,notmoreinformativethanrequired.B:themaximofquality质的准则:Tautologies(意思重复)Donotsaysomethingyoubelieveisfalse,orsomethingislakeofevidence.C:themaximofrelation关系准则:Berelevant.D:themaximofmanner方式准则:Avoidobscurity,ambiguity,bebriefandorderly.Violationofthemaxims通过实例分析违反准则。4．ConversationalimplicatureDefinitionCharacteristicsofconversationalimplicativeCancellability/defeasibilityThismeansthatanimplicaturecanbecancelled.Thefeatureallowsthespeakertoimplysomethingandthendenythatimplicature.A:Let'shaveadrink.B:It'snotoneo'clockyet.(implyingwecandrinkafteroneo'clock)A:Ididn'tsaythatyoucoulddrinkafteroneo'clock.Isaidthatyoucouldn'tdrinkbefore.(theimplicaturedisappears)Non-detachabilityThismeansthatanimplicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottolinguisticform.Thereforeimplicaturescannotbedetachedfromanutterancesimplybychangingthewordsforsynonymsorinotherwordsbyrelexicalizationorreformulation.Forexample,ifeveryoneknowsthatBobisanidiot,saying"Bobisagenius"toconveytheoppositemeaning"Bobisterriblyfoolish,hecanchooseanyofthefollowingsynonymousexpressionstomaintainthesameimplicature:a)Bobisamentalprodigy.b)Bobisanexceptionallycleverhumanbeing.c)Bobisanenormousintellect.d)Bobisabigbrain.Calculability/derivabilityThismeansthatanimplicatureiscalculable,thatistosay,itcanbeworkedoutfromtheliteralmeaningorthesenseoftheutteranceontheonehand,andtheCooperativePrincipleanditsmaximsontheotherhand.Non-conventionalityThisistosaythatconversationalimplicaturesarenotconventional,thatis,notpartoftheconventionalmeaningoflinguisticexpressions.Butweshouldnoticethatwhatbeginsasaconversationalimplicaturemaybecomethemeaningofalexicalitemorlinguisticexpression.Forexample:"Gotothebathroom"originallymeantGoingtoWCasaneuphemism,butnowhasbecomeconventionalized.Wedon'thavetoderivetheimplicaturebytheCPbutbyconvention.5．Cross-culturalpragmaticsfailure第7章languagechanges语言变化本章要点：1．Phonologicalchange音系变化2．Morphologicalandsyntacticchange形态和句法变化3．Lexicalandsemanticchange词汇和语义变化本章考点：新词的增加：创新词，缩略词，紧缩词，词首字母缩略词，逆构词法；词义的变化：词义扩大，缩小，意义的转换。1.Definitionofhistoricallinguistics历史语言学的定义Abranchoflinguistics.Itconcernedwiththedescriptionandexplanationoflanguagechangesthatoccurredoverthetime.2.PhonologicalchangePhonologicalchangetendstobesystematic.ItispossibletoseearegularpatternofpronunciationchangesthroughoutthehistoryofEnglishlanguage.3.MorphologicalandsyntacticchangeAdditionofaffixes词汇的增加InEnglishmanyaffixesareborrowed.Egthesuffix–mentinFrench.LostofaffixesSomeaffixesfadeoutofusefornoapparentreasons.ChangesforwordorderCasemarkinglost,subject-object-verbfixed.ChangeinnegationruleEg.Ilovetheenot.>Idonotlovethee.4lexicalandsemanticchange(1)Additionofnewwords新词的增加A:coinage/inventionAnewwordcanbecoinedoutrighttofitsomepurpose.Eg:walkman,Kodak,FordB:clippedwordsClippingreferstotheabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrase.Eggym-gymnasiumExpo-expositionMemo-memorandumDisco-discothequeC:blendingAblendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords.Egsmog=smoke+fogMotelBrunch=breakfast+lunchD:AcronymsAcronymsarewordderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords.EgBBCVOAE:Back-formationDeletingtheaffixes.Egto

automate

自动化←automation

to

legislate

立法←legislation

F:FunctionalshiftWord-classshiftfromonetoanother.Egnoun-verbloveG：Borrowing借词法(2)Lossofwords词汇的废弃Egbeseem–tobesuitableWot–toknowGyve–afetter(3)changeinthemeaningofwordsSemanticbroadening词义扩大Holiday原形是holyday神圣的宗教节日，现在指不用上班的时间。Semanticnarrowing词义的缩小Hound曾经用来指Dog的总称，现在缩小为指某一种特殊的狗。Semanticshift词义转换Inn原本指小旅馆小酒吧，现在指非常有名的好旅馆。5SomerecenttrendsA:movingtogreaterinformality.Ain’tcan’tdidn’t出现在文章中。B:theinfluenceofAmericanEnglish随着政治经济文化的发张，美国的影视，报纸，杂志，广播和电视对世界文化造成很大的影响。C:theinfluenceoftechnologyandscience新的技术科技的发展创造出新的词汇和表达D:SpacetravelSpacesuit,heat-shieldsplash-downE:computerandinternetlanguagePrograminputoutputF:Ecology生态学环境保护和资源保护。6causesoflanguagechange语言变化的原因经济政治文化发展。第8章sociolinguistics1thescopeofsociolinguisticsThedefinitionofsociolinguistics定义Itisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandsocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.Therelatednessbetweenthelanguageandsociety相关性Themainfunctionoflanguageiscommunication,butitalsousetoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationship.Usersofthesamelanguagemayspeakdifferentlybecausetheirdifferentsocialbackground.Speechcommunityandspeechvariety言语团体与言语变体Speechcommunity:thesocialgroupthatsingledoutforanyspecialstudy.Speechvariety:anydistinguishableformoflanguageusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Speechfeaturescanbefoundatthelexical,thephonological,morphological,orthesyntacticallevelofthelanguage.TwoapproachestosociolinguisticsstudiesMacro-sociolinguisticsorthesociologyoflanguage:宏观社会语言学或者语言社会学Viewthesocietyasawholeandconsiderhowlanguagefunctionsinitandhowitreflectthesocialdifferentiations.Micro-sociolinguisticsorsociolinguisticsproper:微观社会语言学或严格意义的社会语言学：Lookatthesocietyfromthepointofviewofanindividualmemberwithinit.2varietiesoflanguageDialectalvarietiesRegionaldialectDefinition:referstothelanguageusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion.Features:Regionaldialectboundariesareoftencoincidingwithgeographicalboundaries.Inmostcases,theregionaldialectintwoneighboringareaaremutuallyintelligibletoagreatextent,andthechangefromonedialecttoanotherisgradual.Reasons:Thegeographicbarriers;loyaltytotheone’snativespeech;physicalandpsychologicalresistancetothechange.Sociolect(1)Definition:social-classdialectreferstothecharacteristicsofaparticularsocialclass.(2)Features:twopeoplefromthesamegeographicmayspeakdifferentlybecauseoftheirsocialfactors,suchasbackgroundinfluencewhichinfluencelinguisticform.(3):Ascentisanimportantmakerofsociolect.Languageandgender(标准，语调，词汇，礼貌)Thelanguageofwomanismorestandardthanthatofman.Womanhaswiderrangeofintonation.WomantendtouseadjectivesofevaluationWomantendstobemorepolitethanman.Languageandage(词汇差异)A)thelanguageusedbytheoldgenerationandtheyoungergenerationisdifferent,especiallyinthelexicallevel.Idiolect(个人语言)Referstopersonaldialectthatwasdecidedbyhissocialbackground,gender,ageandsoon.EthnicdialectItisusuallyusedbytheunderprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofracialdiscriminationandsegregation.FeaturesofblackEnglish(非中产阶级，辅音的简化，be动词的省略)mainlyusedbythenon-middle-classBlacksthesimplificationoftheconsonantclusters.(语音上)deletionof“be”（句法上）theuseofdoublenegationstructure：hedon’tknownothing.Register语域选择与情景类型相适应的语