自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结(希望对大家有帮助-我也是学生-这是由老师总的-我将PPT转为WORD)

自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结(希望对大家有帮助-我也是学生-这是由老师总的-我将PPT转为WORD)自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结(希望对大家有帮助-我也是学生-这是由老师总的-我将PPT转为WORD)自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结(希望对大家有帮助-我也是学生-这是由老师总的-我将PPT转为WORD)自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结(希望对大家有帮助-我也是学生-这是由老师总的-我将PPT转为WORD)编制仅供参考审核批准生效日期地址：电话：传真:邮编:第一章

绪论1/Whatislinguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics

isgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.2/Thescopeoflinguistics语言学的研究范畴Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalled

generallinguistics.(普通语言学)Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalled

phonetics.（语音学）

Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalled

phonology.（音系学）

Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalled

morphology.（形态学）

Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalled

syntax.（句法学）

Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalled

semantics.（语义学）

Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalled

pragmatics.（语用学）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalled

socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgenerallyknownas

appliedlinguistics.（应用语言学）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesinclude

anthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学）

neurologicallinguistics,（神经语言学）

mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）and

computationallinguistics.（计算机语言学）3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptiveanddescriptive描写与规定Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobe

descriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobe

prescriptive.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisa

synchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisa

diachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.Speechandwriting口头语与书面语Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.

Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.

Reasons:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.Langueandparole[pə'rəul]语言和言语TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20th

century.Langue

referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,and

parole

referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.语言能力和语言运用CompetenceandperformanceProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Hedefines

competence

astheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and

performance

theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.

4/Whatislanguage?语言的定义Language

isasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Sapir,Edwarduses“ideas”“emotions”and“desires”inhisdefinition.Hall,likeSapir,treatslanguageasapurelyhumaninstitution.Chomsky’sdefinitionisquitedifferent,itfocusonthepurelystructuralpropertiesoflanguagesandtosuggestthatthesepropertiescanbeinvestigatedfromamathematicallyprecisepointofview.5/Designfeatures语言的甄别性特征Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures.1)Arbitrariness任意性（和约定俗成性）

Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Forinstance,thereisnonecessaryrelationshipbetweentheworddogandtheanimalitrefersto.Thefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguagesandthatthesamesoundmaybeusedtorefertodifferentobjectsisanothergoodexample.Althoughlanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Somewords,suchasthewordscreatedintheimitationofsoundsbysoundsaremotivatedinacertaindegree.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguagemakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.

2)Productivity能产性Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingthosethattheyhaveneversaidorheardbefore.

3)Duality结构二重性Itmeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerlevelandtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel.Atthelowerorthebasiclevel,thereisthestructureofindividualandmeaninglesssounds,whichcanbegroupedintomeaningfulunitsatthehigherlevel.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.

4)Displacement语言的移位性（突破时空性）Itmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutwhathappenedinthepast,whatishappeningnow,orwhatwillhappeninthefuture.Languagecanalsobeusedtotalkaboutourrealwordexperiencesortheexperiencesinourimaginaryworld.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.

5)Culturaltransmission文化传播性Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew.

**********************************Chapter2Phonology

音系学1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage语言的声音媒介Speechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting.Thelimitedrangesofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage(语言的声音媒介).Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds（语音）.2．Whatisphonetics?什么是语音学？Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage；Itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。threebranchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）,itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview.Itstudieshowaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.

Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbyhehearer.

Acousticphonetics（声学语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.aio3.

Organsofspeech发音器官Thepharyngealcavity咽腔

thethroatTheoralcavity口腔

themouthThenasalcavity鼻腔

thenose语音解剖图发音器官图4.Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds–broadandnarrowtranscriptions语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标IPA-InternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标Therearetwowaystotranscribespeechsounds.Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbols(字母符号)only,calledbroadtranscription(宽式音标).Theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(变音符号),callednarrowtranscription(窄式音标).p音的比较对pit/spit中p音的比较：pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：[phit]spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[spit]l音的比较对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：Leaf中l在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[li:f]Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[II]5.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds英语语音的分类ConsonantsVowelsa)ClassificationofEnglishconsonants按发音方式分Stoporplosive塞音或爆破音:[p][b][t][d][k][g]Fricative擦音：[f][v][s][z][W][T][s][V][h]Affricate塞擦音：[tF][dV]Liquid流音：[l][r]Nasal鼻音：[m][n][N]Glide滑音：[w][j]

a)ClassificationofEnglishconsonants按发音部位分Bilabial双唇音：[p][b][m][w]Labiodental唇齿音：[f][v]Dental齿音：[W][T]Alveolar齿龈音：[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]Palatal硬腭音：[V][tF][dV][i]Velar软腭音：[k][g][N]Glottal声门音：[h]B)ClassificationofEnglishvowels按舌头在口中的位置分：Frontvowel前元音：[i:][i][e][A][a]Centralvowel中元音：[[:][[][Q]Backvowel后元音：[u:][u][R:][R][a:]B)ClassificationofEnglishvowels按口形的大小分：Closevowel闭元音：[i:][i][u:][u]Semi-closevowel半闭元音：[e][[:]Openvowel开元音：[A][a]Semi-openvowel半开元音：[[][R:][Q][R][a:]B)ClassificationofEnglishvowels按唇形是否为圆分Unroundedvowel不圆唇元音：[i:][i][e][A][a][[:][[][Q][a:]roundedvowel圆唇元音：[u:][u][R:][R]B)ClassificationofEnglishvowels按语音的长短分Longvowel长元音[i:][[:][a:][u:][R:]Shortvowel短元音[i][e][A][a][[][Q][u][R]6.Phonology

音系学Phonologyandphonetics音系学和语音学Bothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage,itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Thusthesetwoareatoncerelatedanddistinctbranchesoflinguisticstudies.7.Phone,phoneme,andallophone语音（音素）、音位、音位变体PhonePhonecanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.语音是语言学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。语音是一个语音单位或一个切分成分，它并不一定能区分意义。PhonologyPhonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishmeaning.Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme,itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Butitisanabstractunit.Aphonemeisnotasound,itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。一个音位在语音上被具体体现为一个特定的语音（音素）。按照惯例，音位被置于两斜线之间，如/p//t/，而语音被置于方括号内，如[p][t].allophonesThedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境里的具体体现，同一个音位在不同的语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。8.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair音位对立、互补分布、最小对立对Phoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.Theymightformacontrastiftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,ortheydonotformacontrastinmeaningiftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.相似的语音之间可能有两种关系。两个相似的语音如果是两个区别性音位，它们在意义上形成对立，如果是同一音位的变体，在意思上不形成对立。phonemiccontrastTheformer（theyaretwodistinctivephonemes）iscalledphonemiccontrast,theycanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning.音位对立是指不同音位之间的关系，它们可以出现在不同的语音组合的同一位置，产生意义差别，如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。complementarydistributionThelatter（theydonotformacontrastinmeaning）iscalledcomplementarydistribution;theyaretwoallophonesofthesamephoneme.Theyonlyoccurindifferentenvironments.互补分布是指音位变体之间的关系，同一个音位的不同变体在语音组合中永远不会出现在相同的位置上，它们没有区别意义的作用，如top中的送气的[p]和stop中不送气的[p]。ThewayAbasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotheroneresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.确定一种语言的音位的一个基本途径是，看如果用一个语音代替另一个是否会产生不同的意义。如果产生了，那么这两个语音就代表不同的音位。为此，一个简单的办法就是找出最小对立对。aminimalpairWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.最小对立对是指除了出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合，如[pen]和[ben]。9.Somerulesinphonology几条音系规则A)

sequentialrules系列规则Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.在一种特定的语言中，语音的组合是受规则制约的，这些规则叫做系列规则。重要的规则：I.

如果单词以[l]或[r]为首，其后的一个语音必定为元音，如rude,last,leapII.

如果三个辅音同时出现在单词词首，则：第一音位必定为/s/，第二音位必定是/p//t//k/，第三音位必定是/l//r//w/，如strict,splendid,springIII.

塞擦音[tʃ][dv]和咝音[s][z][F][V]后不能紧跟另一个咝音，如teach变复数为teaches[[ti:tʃiz]。IV.

制约音位模式的规则是随语言的不同而不同的，英语中适用，其它语言却不适用。B)

assimilationrules同化规则Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.同化规则即通过“模仿”一个系列音位的一个特征使一个语音与另一个语音相似，从而使两个音素变得相似。重要的规则：I.

元音后紧跟一个鼻音时，该元音要鼻音话。如bean/green中的[i:]音。II.

在一个单词中，鼻音[n]所处的发音部位和紧随其后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。如correct–incorrect。III.语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因为[n]音同化成了[m]音。C)deletionrules省略规则Theruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.省略规则告诉我们什么时候一个语音尽管在拼写中存在，但在发音中却省略了。重要的规则：如[g]音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省略。如sign中的[g]音不发音。而在加了后缀的signature中，[g]却要发音的。10.

Suprasegmentalfeatures-stress,tone,intonation超切分特征：重音、声调和语调Distinctivefeaturescanalsobefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.

区别性特征也可以在由两个或多个音位切分成分所组成的系列中体现出来。出现在切分层面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征。它们时音节、单词和句子等语言单位的音系特征。主要的超切分特征包括重音、音调和语调。A)

Stress重音重要的规则：I.一个单词如果既可以作名词，又可以作动词，则名词重音在第一个音节上，相应的动词重音则在第二个音节上。如import。II.英语复合词的重音常在第一个成分上，第二个成分是次重音。如hotdog。B)

Tone声调汉语的声调C)

Intonation语调Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.当音高、重音和音长依附于一个句子而不是单个单词时，这些音素合起来叫做语调。Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.Themostfrequentlyusedarethefirstthree.英语中有四种基本语调：降调、升调、降升调、升降调。最常用的是前三种。**********************************Chapter3Morphology

形态学WhatisMorphology?Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.形态学是语法的一个分支，研究词的内部结构和构词规则。twosub-branchesMorphologyisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalmorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.Theformerstudiestheinflectionsandthelatteristhestudyofwordformation.形态学可分为两个分支科学：屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。前者研究词的屈折变化，后者研究词的构成。1.

Morpheme

语素Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage语言最小的意义单位。

Themeaningmorphemesconveymaybeoftwokinds:lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaning.语素表达的意义有两种：词汇意义和语法意义。2.Typesofmorphemes

语素的分类FreeBounda)

Freemorphemes自由语素

Freemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.自由语素是独立的意义单位，能够独自自由使用，当然也可以和其它语素结合使用。b)

Boundmorphemes黏着语素

Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.黏着语素是那些不能单独使用，而必须和其它语素－自由语素或黏着语素－结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素。3.

Typesofboundmorphemes

黏着语素的分类Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixes词根和词缀。

RootArootisoftenseenaspartofword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.词根被看作是词的一部分，它有清楚、明确的意思，但不能单独存在，它必须和另一个词根或词缀组合构成单词。AffixesAffixesareoftwotypes:1.inflectional2.derivational屈折词缀和派生词缀InflectionalaffixesInflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。TheEnglishinflectionalaffixes-(e)s,indicatingpluralityofnouns表示名词复数-(e)s,indicatingthirdpersonsingular,presenttense表示现在时的第三人称单数-(e)d,indicatingpasttenseforallthreepersons表示过去时-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspect表示进行时-er,indicatingcomparativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词比较级-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词最高级-‘s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnouns表示名词的所有格DerivationalaffixesDerivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.ThisisaverycommonwaytocreatenewwordsinEnglish.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。能够加上一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。ExampleTolerate

词根toler-＋词缀-ateQuickly

自由语素quick＋词缀-lyCarelessness

自由语素care＋词缀-less形成的派生词careless＋词缀-ness

PrefixesandSuffixesAffixesaredividedintotwokinds:-prefixes-suffixes前缀和后缀PrefixesPrefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.Exceptionaretheprefixes“be-”and“en(m)-”.前缀改变词干的意思，但通常不改变原词的词性。“be-”和“en(m)-”是例外。SuffixesSuffixesareaddedtotheendofthestem,theymodify=ythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.后缀加在词干的末尾，改变原词的意思，并且在多数情况下，改变原词的词性。4.

Morphologicalrules

形态学规则Morphologicalrulesaretherulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypesofstemtoformanewword.形态学规则主要指英语中通过派生方式构成新词的构词规则，即将词缀加到词干上去构成新词的规则。学习者必须掌握这些规则，但又要注意不能过分概括这些规则，以免生造出不存在的单词。5.

Typesofcompoundwords

复合词的类型Noun+noun

名词＋名词

如：handbook,sunshineAdjective+noun形容词＋名词

如：highway,sweetheartAdjective+noun+ed形容词＋名词＋ed

如：white-haired,green=eyedVerb+noun动词＋名词

如：pickpocket,drivewayAdverb+noun副词＋名词

如：downtown,upgradeNoun+verb

名词＋动词

如：toothpick,snowfallVerb+adverb

动词＋副词

如：follow-up,kick-offNoun+adjective

名词＋形容词

如：world-famous,life-long-ingform+noun

-ing形式＋名词

如：dining-room,reading-glassesOtherforms

其它形式

如：go-between,father-in-law,upbringing,have-nots,thank-younote6.

Featuresofcompounds1)

Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.在拼写上，复合词既可以写成一个词，中间加连字符或不加连字符，也可以分开写。如armchair,follow-up,thunderbird2)

Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.在语法上，复合词的词性一般取决于复合词中第二个成分的词性。如icy-cold是形容词，head-strong也是形容词，greenhouse是名词。而例外的情况有：follow-up,crackdown,kickoff都是名词而不是副词，而toothpick,snowfall,facelift都是名词而不是动词。3)

Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponents.在语意上，复合词的意义具有习语特性，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分的意义的总和。如hotdog,greenhouse等。4)

Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.在语音上，复合词的重音总是在第一个构成成分上，而次重音在第二个构成成分上。这一点可以帮助我们用来区分两种-ing的形式，一种是作为名词前修饰语的-ing形式，另一种是作为复合词的前一部分。如runningdog重音在running上，表示“走狗”这一-ing形式＋名词的复合词。如重音在dog上，则表示running用来修饰dog，意为“还在跑的狗”。**********************************Chapter4Syntax

句法学1.WhatisSyntax?Syntaxstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.ThetermsyntaxcameoriginallyfromGreek.Itliterallymeantarrangement.Itmeansthatsentencesarestructuredaccordingtoaparticulararrangementofwords.Well-arrangedsentencesareconsideredgrammaticalsentences.Grammaticalsentencesareformedfollowingasetofsyntacticrules.句法学研究语言的句子结构。该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。句法是一个规则系统。2.

Syntaxasasystemofrules

句法是规则系统Syntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.Asentenceisconsideredgrammaticalwhenitisinagreementwiththegrammaticalknowledgeinthemindofnativespeakers.Universallyfoundinthegrammarsfallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerknownaslinguisticcompetence.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。任何一种语言的句法规则都包含了说话者的头脑中的语言知识系统（称为语言能力）。FiniteandnolimitThesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.任何语言的句法规则的数量是有限的，但说话者可以理解和表达的句子的数量是无限的。3.

Thebasiccomponentsofasentence

句子的构成Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.Normally,asentenceconsistsofatleastasubject（主语）anditspredicate（谓语）whichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase.句子是一个结构独立和完整的语法单位，这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整的陈述句、问句或命令。一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。subjectThereferringexpression（被指称的对象）,suchasaperson,aplace,athing,anidea,oranevent,isgrammaticallycalledsubject.Asubjectisusuallyanounoranounphrase.主语是指句子中被指称的对象，如人、物、事、概念等。主语通常由名词或名词词组构成。predicateThepartofsentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,actionoroccurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.谓语是指对句子中主语进行表述或判断的部分。谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。限定动词常被称为句子的中心动词，表述存在、动作或出现，限定动词送人称、数、时态和情态的限制。4．Typesofsentence

句子的类型a)

Thesimplesentence简单句Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.简单句由一个子句构成，该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语，且独立构成句子。b)

Thecoordinatesentence并列句

Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausejoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“and”but””or”.并列句包含两个子句，由and,but,or等并列连词连接。c)

Thecomplexsentence复合句

Acomplexsentencecontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.Thatis,thetwoclausesinacomplexsentenceholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.Theincorporated,orsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanembeddedclause,andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.复合句包含两个或两个以上的子句，其中一个被并入另一个句子。复合句中两个句子的地位是不同的，一个句子从属于另一个句子。被并入或是从属的子句通常被称为子句，而包含子句的子句被称为主句。5.Thelinearwordorderofasentence

句子的线性词序

Whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.Meanwhile,theyareheardorreadasarrangedoneafteranotherinasequence.Thissequentialorderofwordsinasentencesuggeststhatthestructureofasentenceislinear.我们说出或写下一个句子，其中的词语是按次序一个接一个出现的。同时，对方也是一个接一个次序听到这个词语的。句子中词语的这种有次序的排列表明，句子的结构是线性的。6.Thehierarchicalstructureofasentence

句子的层次结构

Thesuperficialarrangementofwordsinalinearsequencedoesnotentailthatsentencesaresimplylinearlystructured.Sentencestructureishierarchicalinnature.

组成句子的单词表面上的线性排列并不意味着句子仅仅是线性结构的。句子实际上是有层次结构的。7.Treediagramsofsentencestructure

句子结构树形图

Thehierarchicalordercanbebestillustratedwithatreediagramofconstituentstructure.句子的层次结构可以用各组成部分的树形图来很好地说明。见课文67－70页。Inaddition,thehierarchicalstructureofsentencescanalsobeillustratedbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.另外，句子的层次结构还可以用括号和写在下角的标记来标示。见课文71页。8.Lexicalcategories

词类Wordsareorganizedintogroupsoflexicalcategories,commonlyknownaspartsofspeech.Alanguagehasmajorandminorlexicalcategories.Majorlexicalcategoriesareopencategoriesthatnewwordsareconstantlyadded.Minorlexicalcategoriesareclosedcategoriesbecausethenumberofthelexicalitemsinthesecategoriesisfixedandnonewmembersareallowedfor.Englishhasfourmajorlexicalcategoriesandsixminorlexicalcategories.所有的词都有某种属性，即词性。词可以分为主要词类和次要词类。主要词类不断有新词加入，它是开放词类，而次要词类是封闭的，因为这类词的词项是固定的，不允许有新词加入。英语有四个主要词类和六个次要词类。

主要词类：Noun(N)名词：studentVerb(V)动词：likeAdjective(Adj)形容词：tallAdverb(Adv)副词：loudly次要词类：Determiner(Det)限定词：the,a,this,hisAuxiliary(Aux)助动词：can,do,willPreposition(Prep)介词：in,at,overPronoun(Pron)代词：he,she,us,mineConjunction(Conj)连词：and,or,but,whileInterjection(Int)感叹词：oh,ah,eh9.Phrasalcategories

词组类型Fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),prepositionalphrase(PP),andadjectivephrase(AP).NPandVPareessentialcomponentsofasentence,comprisingthesubjectandpredicate.通常讨论的词组类型有四种，分别是：名词词组，动词词组，介词词组和形容词词组。名词词组和动词词组是句子中最重要的词组，因为它们构成了句子的主语和谓语。TrueorFalse?Importantnote:NPjustcontainanoun,VPjustcontainaverb,PPjustcontainaprepositionandAPjustcontainanadjective.重要：一个名词词组只包含一个名词，一个动词词组只包含一个动词，一个介词词组只包含一个介词，一个形容词词组只包含一个形容词。10.Grammaticalrelations

语法关系Thestructuralandlogicalfunctionrelationsofconstituentsarecalledgrammaticalrelations.语法关系是指句子中名词词组和动词的关系，其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。N-VThegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachnounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverb.从结构上看，英语句子中的主语往往出现在动词之前，宾语往往出现在动词止回。S-V，V-OInEnglishandmanyotherlanguages,thesubjectusuallyprecedestheverbandthedirectobjectusuallyfollowstheverb.StructuralandlogicalStrictlyspeaking,thisstatementistrueonlyintermsofthestructuralsubject（结构主语）andthestructuralobject（结构宾语）.Thelogicalsubject（逻辑主语）andthelogicalobject（逻辑宾语）mayhavedifferentpositions.中文翻译参考语法关系是指句子中名词词组和动词的关系，其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。从结构上看，英语句子中的主语往往出现在动词之前，宾语往往出现在动词止回。这种置动词之前的主语叫结构主语，置动词之后的宾语叫结构宾语。结构主语和结构宾语只是句子的形式主语和形式宾语，而意义上的主语和宾语才是句子的逻辑主语和逻辑宾语。逻辑主语是实施者，而逻辑宾语是受事者。逻辑主语和逻辑宾语在句子中的位置可以同形式主语和形式宾语在句子中的位置相同，也可以不同。如英语被动句中的形式主语是逻辑宾语，而形式宾语是逻辑主语。11.Phrasalstructurerules

短语结构规则Thecombinationalpatterninalinearformulamaybecalledaphrasestructuralrule,orrewriterule.短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。Example1S→NPVP.Thearrowisreadas“consistof”,or“isrewrittenas”。Theruleis:asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase.在本例中，箭头读作“包含”或“重写为”。这样的规则就读作：一个句子包含或可以重写为一个名词词组和一个动词词组。Example2NP→(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)Anounphraseconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anoptionaldeterminer,anoptionaladjective,anobligatorynoun,anoptionalprepositionalphrase,and/oranoptionalsentence.这就是名词词组的短语结构规则，读作：一个名词词组包含或可以重写为一个限定词、一个形容词、一个名词、一个介词词组和（或）一个