(完整word版)语言学学名词解释

"Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificorsystematicstudyof(human)language.a.ThewordIanguageprecededbyzeroarticleinEnglishimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularIanguage,e.g.English,Chinese,FrenchandJapanese,butIanguagesingeneral.b.Thewordstudydoesnotmean“learn”but"investigate”.c.ThewordscientificreferstothewayinwhichIanguageisstudied.Itisascieneeinthesensethatitscientificallystudiestherules,systemsandprinciplesofhumanIanguages.Itdealswithawiderangeoflinguisticphenomena,analyzesthem,andmakesgeneralstatementsaboutthem.2)Linguisticsisalwaysguidedbythe3canonsofscience:(ece)exhaustiveness:itstrivesforthorough-goingnessintheexaminationofrelevantmaterials;consistency:thereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatementeconomy:otherthingsbeingequal,ashorterstatementoranalysisistobepreferredtoonethatisIongerormorecomplex.(ece)3)Thesubjectmatteroflinguisticsisallnaturallanguage,livingordead.4)Linguisticshas2mainpurposes:itstudiesthenatureofIanguageandtriestoestablishatheoryofIanguage,anddescribesIanguagesinthelightofthetheoryestablished.ItexaminesalltheformsofIanguageingeneralandseeksascientificunderstandingofthewaysinwhichitisorganizedtofulfilltheneedsitservesandthefunctionsitperformsinhumanlifelinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaratleastin3basicways:LinguisticsdescribesIanguagesanddoesnotlaydownrulesofcorrectness.Linguistsareinterestedinwhatissaid.Sotheyareoftensaidtobedescriptive.LinguistsregardthespokenIanguageasprimary.ItisbelievedthatspeechcameintobeingfirstforanyhumanIanguageandthewritingsystemcamealongmuchlater.TraditionalgrammarisbasedonLatinandittriestoimposetheLatincategoriesandstructuresonotherIanguages,whilelinguisticsdescribeseachIanguageonitsownmerits.ForastudentofIanguage,someknowledgeoflinguisticsisofbothinterestandimportanee.ForateacherofforeignIanguages,hewilldefinitelyagreatdealfromtheknowledgeoflinguistics.Foraresearcher,thereisevenmorescopefordisplayinghisabilities.Whystudylinguistics?1.LinguisticstakesananalyticalapproachtothestudyofIanguage,andfocusondevelopingskillsindataanalysis,problemsolving,andlogicalthinkingthatcanbeappliedtomanyfields.2.Itisaninterdisciplinarysubject.3.Linguisticsisasciencethatisstillinitsinfancybutundergoingrapiddevelopment,anditisapilotscienceWhatandhowlinguistsstudylanguage?1.natureofIanguage(focusonIanguageitself)2.natureofacquisition(focusonlearners)3.natureofteaching(focusonteachers)Theprocessoflinguisticstudy^anbesummarizedasfollows:.First,certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;.Next,basedonthesegeneralizations,hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;.Andfinallyalinguistictheoryisconstructedaboutwhatlanguageisandhowitworks.Generallinguistics:ThestudyofIanguageasawhole.Itdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy.Microlinguistics（微观语言学）includes6branches,namely,phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semanticsandpragmatics.ItstudiesIanguageitself.Macrolinguistics（宏观语言学）studiesIanguageinuse---practicalusage.macrolinguisticsncludes:SociolinguisticsstudiestherelationsbetweenIanguageandsociety:howsocialfactorsinflueneethestructureanduseofIanguage.AnothernameforsociolinguisticsisthesociologyofIanguage.Psycholinguistic^thestudyofIanguageandmind:thementalstructuresandprocesseswhichareinvolvedintheacquisition,comprehensionandproductionofIanguage.NeurolinguisticsorneurologicallinguisticsisthestudyofIanguageprocessingandIanguagerepresentationinthebrain.Stylisticsisthestudyofhowliteraryeffectscanberelatedtolinguisticfeatures.ItusuallyreferstothestudyofwrittenIanguage,includingliterarytexts,butitalsoinvestigatesspokenIanguagesometimes.Discourseanalysis,ortextlinguistics^thestudyoftherelationshipbetweenIanguageandthecontextsinwhichIanguageisused.Computationallinguisticsisanapproachtolinguisticswhichemploysmathematicaltechniques,oftenwiththehelpofacomputer.CognitivelinguisticsisanapproachtotheanalysisofnaturalIanguagethatfocusesonIanguageasaninstrumentfororganizing,processing,andconveyinginformation.Apartfromthedifferentbranchesoflinguistics,therearesomedistinctionsoflinguistics,suchas:functionallinguisticsvsformallinguistics;theoreticallinguisticsvsappliedlinguistics.Appliedlinguisticsisprimarilyconcernedwiththeapplicationoflinguistictheories,methodsandfindingstotheelucidationoflanguageproblemswhichhaveariseninotherareasofexperience.Phonetics（语音学）:Phoneticsisthescientificstudyofspeechsounds.Itstudieshowspeechsoundsarearticulated,transmitted,andreceived.Itisapurescienceandexaminesspeechsoundsingeneral.Phonetics:Thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds.Phonology（音系学/音位学）：ThedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinaIanguage.PhonologyisthestudyofhowspeechsoundsfunctioninaIanguage.Itstudiesthewaysspeechsoundsareorganized.ItcanbeseenasthefunctionalphoneticsofaparticularIanguage.Morphology（形态学，词法学）：Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords.Morphologyisthestudyoftheformationofwords.Itisabranchoflinguisticswhichbreakswordsintomorphemes.Syntax（句法学）:Thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences.Syntaxdealswiththecombinationofwordsintophrases,clausesandsentences.Itisthegrammarofsentenceconstruction.Semantic^语义学）isabranchoflinguisticswhichisconcernedwiththestudyofmeaninginabstraction.PragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofIanguageinuse.ItdealswithhowspeakersuseIanguageinwayswhichcannotbepredictedfromlinguisticknowledgealone,andhowhearersarriveattheintendedmeaningofspeakers.Inabroadsense,pragmaticsstudiestheprinciplesobservedbyhumanbeingswhentheycommunicatewithoneanother.LanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunicationThisdefinitioniswidelyacceptedbecauseitincludessomeoftheimportantcharacteristicsofhumanIanguage.Languageassystem---Thekeywordinthedefinitionis"system".Languageissystematic.Otherwisewewouldnotbeabletolearnoruseitconsistently.EachIanguagesystemcontainstwosubsystems:asystemofsoundandasystemofmeaning.Languageisasystem—elementsinitarenotarrangedandcombinedrandomly,butaccordingtosomerulesandprinciples.Languageasarbitrary---ThereisnonaturalrelationshipbetweenthesoundandwhatitmeansinacertainIanguage.Therelationbetweensoundandmeaningisalmostalwaysarbitraryorconventional.Therelationbetweensoundandmeaningisalmostalwaysarbitrary.Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.RomeoandJulietTherelationbetweensoundandmeaningisalmostalwaysconventional《荀子正名》：名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。名无固实，约之以命实，约定俗成，谓之实名。名有固善，径易而不拂，谓之善名。”《道德经》第一章道可道，非常道。名可名，非常名。无名天地之始；有名万物之母。Languageasvocal—By"vocal"wemeanthattheprimarymediumofalllanguagesissound,nomatterhowwelldevelopedtheirwritingsystemmightbe.Languageassymbol---Languageisjustsymbolforthethingitrefers.Languageisasymbolicsystem.Languageashuman---Languageishuman-specific,itisverydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystems.NosystemofanimalcommunicationmakesuseofthedesignfeaturesofhumanIanguage.Languageascommunication---Languageisusedforhumancommunication.Itallowspeopletosaythingstoeachotherandexpresstheircommunicativeneeds.Designfeaturerefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitformanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Arbitrariness:thereisnologicalorintrinsicconnectionbetweenaparticularsoundandthemeaningitisassociatedwith.Productivityorcreativity:man'slinguisticabilitywhichenableshimtoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesinournativeIanguage,includingthesentenceswhichwereneverheardbefore.Dualityordoublearticulation:thisorganizationofIanguageintotwolevels--alevelofsounds,alevelofmeaning.Displacement:DisplacementisapropertyofIanguageenablingpeopletotalkaboutthingsremoteeitherinspaceorintime.CulturaltransmissionLanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itcannotbetransmittedthroughheredity.AhumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquireIanguage.WhatIanguagethebabyisgoingtospeakisdeterminedbythecultureheisborninto.Interchangeabilityorreciprocity:mancanbothproduceandreceivemessages,andhisrolesasaspeakerandahearercanbeexchangedatease.Specialization:mandoesnothaveatotalphysicalinvolvementintheactofcommunication.Speechisaspecializedactivity.Weuseitinadetachedmanner.Languagefunctionsasaprincipalmeansofcommunication.Italsofunctionsassocialcontrol.Itisnotonlyapsychologicalphenomenon,butalsoasocialfactTheprimaryfunctionoflanguageistotransmitinformationandtoconveycommands,feelingsandemotions.Languageisatoolofcommunication.“Communication”canbeusedtocovermuchofthefunctionofIanguage.Herearesomeofthemajorcategories:Thefunctionsoflanguage:Phaticfunction/communion（寒暄功能）:Languageisusedtoestablishanatmosphereormaintainsocialcontactbetweenthespeakerandthehearer.Greetings,farewells,andcommentsontheweatherservethisfunction.Directive（指令）function:Languageservesadirectivefunctionwhenitisusedtogetthehearerdosomething.Mostimperativesentenceshavethisfunction."Getout!""Closethewindow,please.","Walkslowly"areafewexamples.Informative（信息）function:Languageservesaninformativefunctionwhenitisusedtotellwhatthespeakerbelieves,togiveinformationaboutfactsortoreasonthingsout.Informativefunctionismetthroughdeclarativesentences.Suchinformativestatementsareeithertrueorfalse.Interrogative（疑问）function:Languageseversaninformativefunctionwhenitisusedtogetinformationfromothers.Allquestionsthatexpectanswershavethisfunction,suchas:"Whenwillthemeetingbegin?"Expressive表达）function:Languageservesanexpressivefunctionwhenitisusedtorevealthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.Ejaculationslike:"Goodheavens!"*toreleaseinnerfeelingsEvocative情W感）function:TheevocativefunctionistheuseofIanguagetoarousecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimistoamuse,startle,anger,soothe,worryorplease.Performative（施为）function:Languageisusedtodothingsortoperformacts.Mannerofarticulationrefertothemannerinwhichobstructioniscreated,andtheplaceofarticulationreferstotheplacewhereobstructioniscreated.ClassificationofEnglishconsonants:stop爆破音）,fricatives©察音）,affricates（塞擦音）Liquids（流音），nasals（鼻音）,glides（滑音），bilabial（双唇音），labiodental（唇齿音）Dental（齿音）,alveolar（齿齿龈音）,palatal（上颚音）,velar（软腭音）,glottal（喉音）MonophthongscanbeclassifiedaccordingtoTheHighestPartoftheTongue（舌高）TheOpeningoftheMouth（口腔张开度）TheShapeoftheLips（唇形）TheLengthoftheVowel（元音音长）Mostmodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Itattemptstodescribewhatpeopleactuallysay.Astraditionalgrammarstriedtolaydownrules,theyareoftencalledprescriptiveDescriptivegrammarsattempttotellwhatisinthelanguage,whileprescriptivegrammarstellpeoplewhatshouldbeinthelanguageWhenwestudyIanguageatoneparticulartime,itiscalledsynchroniclinguistics.synchroniclinguisticsfocusesonthestateofIanguageatanypointinhistorywhilediachronicorhistoricallinguisticsfocusesonthedifferencesintwoormorethan2statesofIanguageoverdecadesorcenturies.TostudyIanguagediachronicallyreliesonthesynchronicstudyofIanguage.SynchroniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguisticsarecorrelatedinthevalidstudyofIanguage.LinguistsregardthespokenIanguageasprimary.ItisbelievedthatspeechcameintobeingfirstforanyhumanIanguageandthewritincamealongmuchlater.Languageisprimarilyvocal.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Parolereferstoparticularrealizationsoflangue.Langueisthesocial,conventionalsideofIanguage.Paroleisindividualizedspeech.Langueistheabstractknowledgenecessaryforspeaking,listening,writingandreading.ParoleistheconcretemanifestationofIanguageeitherthroughspeechorwriting.Langueisrelativelystableandsystematic.Paroleismorevariableandmaychangeaccordingtocontextualfactors.Langueisthecode.ParoleisthemessageCompetencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershaveoftheirIanguageasasystemofabstractformalrelations.Performancereferstotheiractuallinguisticbehavior,thatis,theactualuseofthisknowledge.Phonetics语音学）What'sPhonetics?ThescientificstudyofthespeechsoundsthatoccurinallhumanIanguagesiscalledphonetics.ThetaskofphoneticsistoidentifywhatarespeechsoundsinaIanguage,andthentostudytheircharacteristicsThethreemainbranchesofphoneticsi）articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）（ii）auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）（iii）acousticphonetics（声学语音学）Thephonicmediumoflanguageconsistsofindividualspeechsoundsthataremeaningfulinhumancommunication.PhonologyisthedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinaIanguage.PhonologyisthestudyofhowspeechsoundsfunctioninaIanguage.Itstudiesthewaysspeechsoundsareorganized.ItcanbeseenasthefunctionalphoneticsofaparticularIanguage.Bothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.Butwhilebotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,theydifferinapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisconcernedwithallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanIanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phone音素：thespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingaIanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Notallphonesdistinguishmeaning.Phoneme（音位）:thephonologicalunitofIanguagePhoneme（音位）isanabstractunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Phoneme（音位）isnotasoundthatispronounced,butacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.Itisabasicunitinphonology.Whenafeaturedistinguishesonephonemefromanotheritisadistinctivefeature（aphonemicfeature）.Inadditiontovoicing（浊音化）,placeofarticulation（发音部位）andmannerofarticulation（发音方式）arealsotheprincipaldistinctivefeaturesofconsonants.Minimalpairsare2wordswhichareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentthatoccursinthesameplaceinthestring.E.g.site&sidePitchistheperceivedfrequencyofasoundwave.Conceptualmeaningmeansthatthemeaningofwordsmaybediscussedintermsofwhattheydenoteorreferto.Connotativemeaningisthecommunicativevaluethatawordoracombinationofwordshasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.Socialmeaningisthemeaningwhichanexpressionconveysaboutthecontextsorsocialcircumstancesofitsuse.ItchieflyincludesstylisticmeaningofanutteraneeReflectivemeaningisthemeaningwhicharisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeanings,whenonesenseofawordformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.Theassociationsawordgetsbecauseofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitslinguisticcontextar