语言学期末这份是正确的

.WhatisIanguage1.Languagecanbegenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Systematic----rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;can'tbecombinedatwill..*bkli,*Iappleeat.Arbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.Symbolic——wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”——ShakespeareVocal----theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.Human-specific----differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.Thedesign/defining/distinctivefeaturesofhumanIanguage:Arbitrariness（任意性）Productivity/Creativity（创立性）Duality（二元性、二层性）Displacement（移位性）Culturaltransmission（文化传达性）2.语言&语言Langue---theIanguagesystemsharedbyacommunityofspeakersParole---theconcreteactofspeakinginactualsituationsbyanindividualspeaker.3.Synchronicvs.diachronicSynchronic（linguistics）---languagesarestudiedatatheoreticpointintime:onedescribesa

‘

state

'

ofIanguage,disregardingwhateverchangesmightbetakingplace.Diachronic----Ianguagesarestudiedfrompointofviewoftheirhistoricaldevelopment—forexample,thechangeswhichhavetakenplacebetweenOldandModernEnglishcouldbedescribedinphonological,grammaticalandsemanticterms.二?语音学（选择题）三?音位学Phonology音位变体Allophones——thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.同一音位在不同样环境中表现出来的两个或多个语音上不同样的音段

.比方，在英语里，音位

/t/

在

tin

里是送气的[th],

在

stand

里是不送气的

[t]，在

eighth

里是齿化的

[t],

在

cotton

里是鼻除阻的

[tn]

,在

bottle

里是边除阻的[tl],

在

hit

里则表现为声门化的

[t].其他，随着说话人口音的不同样，可能还会有其他的语音形式

.这样一套在说话人话语中的语音形式就是音位

/t/

的音位变体

.把两个音素划归成同一音位的两个音位变体必定满足语音相似性原则，而且它们不能够处于比较分布[p,ph]aretwodifferentphones音子andarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution互补分布becausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext:[p]occursafter[s]while[ph]occursinotherplaces./p/[p]/[s]_______[ph]elsewhere互补分布Complementarydistribution----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,.dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].四?形态学**Morphemes:Technically,amorphemeisdefinedasaminimalmeaningfulunitinthegrammaticalsystemofacomponentsofawordareknownasmorphemes.Theythemselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed:chairman:chair,mantownhall:town,hallboys:boy,-schecking:check,-ingdisappointment:dis-,appoint,-mentFreemorpheme&boundmorpheme自由语素和粘着语素Freemorpheme----isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.Boundmorpheme----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas-sindogs,alinnational,dis-indisclose,edinrecorded,etc.**Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorpheme派生语素和屈折性语素Derivationalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,.correct---incorrect,edit---co-edit,modern---modernize,length---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.Inflectionalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,.a)number:tablesmatchesfactoriesperson,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedcase:John/John'scomparison:tall/taller/tallest1.构词法wordformationCompound:smartphone,cutting-edge,domainname,cloakroom衣帽间,state-of-the-artontrol,armchairDerivation派生法：un+consciousunconscious,nation+alnational,national+izenationalizenationalize+ationnationalizationInvention(新创词语):Facebook,Twitter,drones,microblog,e-tailer,smartphone,tsunami

顶尖的,nursinghome,self-cBlending(

混成法):smoke+fog>smogmotorist+hotel>motelbreakfast+lunch>brunchmodulator+demodulator>modemsmoking+flirting>smirting边吸烟边跟异性搭讪advertisement+editorial〉advertorialeducation+entertainment>edutainmentinformation+commercial>infomercialinformation+entertainment>Infortainment新闻娱乐化in+love+individual>inlovidual独立爱人Abbreviation(缩写词):advertisement--ad;helicopter--copter;influenza--fluAcronym(缩写词):WB---WorldBankCIA---CentralIntelligeneeAgencyWTO--CPI---ConsumerPriceIndex花销者物价指数UNESCO--联合国教科文组织NEET---NotinEducation,EmploymentorTraining啃老族Clipping(截断法):Back-clippings:ad(vertisement),chimp(anzee),deli(catessen),hippo(potamus),piano(forte),reg(ulation)s,app(lication)program(应用软件)Fore-clippings:(ham)burger,(omni)bus,(violin)cello,(heli)copter,(alli)gator,(tele)phone,(earth)quake.Fore-and-aftclippings:(in)flu(enza),(de)tec(tive).Back-formation(逆构词法):ganglinggangleeditoreditpeddlerpeddlehawkerhawkenthusiasmenthuselaserlasecalmativecalmfreeassociationfree-associateAnalogicalcreation(类推构词)：work:wrought>worked；beseech:besought>beseeched；slay:slew>slayedBorrowing(借词):BorrowfromotherIanguages.Chinese:kungfu,tea,tofu,typhoon;Japanese:TsunamiIndian:bungalow,jungle,yoga五?句法学画树形图'ssub-categorizationproperties;itcontainsallthe2.Chomsky提出：形式主义的变换生成语法TransformationalGenerativeGrammar、UniversalGrammar、LAD语言习得体系Ianguageacquisition3.表层结构和深层结构Deepstructure&surfacestructureConsiderthefoIIowingpairofsentences:JohniseasytopIease.JohniseagertopIease.StructuraIIysimiIarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.Consideronemoresentence:FIyingpIanescanbedangerous.Itcanmeaneitherthat:ifyoufIypIanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPIanesthatarefIyingaredangerous.Deepstructure----formedbytheXPruIeinaccordancewiththeheadunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.Surfacestructure----correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten..语义学SemanticsistraditionallydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginIanguage.Typesofmeaning:GrammaticalmeaningLexicalmeaning①Conceptualmeaning看法意义②Associationmeaning联想意义a.Connotativemeaning内涵意义b.Socialmeaning社会意义c.Affectivemeaning感情义义d.Reflectedmeaning反射意义e.Collocatinvemeaning搭配意义③Thematicmeaning主位意义(1)Conceptualmeaning看法意义Alsocalled‘denotative'(夕卜延的)or‘cognitive'meaning.Referstological,cognitiveordenotativecontent.Concernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orrefersto.(2)Connotativemeaning(内涵意义)Thecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.SocialmeaningWhatapieceofIanguageconveysaboutthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse.⑷Affectivemeaning(感情义义)Reflectingthepersonalfeelingsofthespeaker,includinghisattitudetothelistener,orhisattitudetosomethingheistalkingabout.ReflectedmeaningArisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeaning,whenonesenseofawordformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.反响意义指的是一个语词或语句除了自己的意义以外还顺带隐射或隐含了其他意义，或联想意义即引起读者联想的意义。Whenyouhear‘clickthemousetwice',youthinkofGerrybeinghittwicebyTomsoyoufeelexcited.Manytabootermsareresultofthis.(6)CollocativemeaningTheassociationsawordacquiresonaccountofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitsenvironment.pretty:girl,boy,woman,flower,garden,color,village,etc.handsome:boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriter,etc.ThematicmeaningWhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemessage,intermsofordering,focus,andemphasis.Mrs.BessieSmithdonatedthefirstprize.ThefirstprizewasdonatedbyMrs.BessieSmith.Theystoppedattheendofthecorridor.Attheendofthecorridor,theystopped.2.SenserelationsMajorsenserelations:SynonymyHyponymy上下意义关系

同义关系

,Antonymy

反义关系

,Polysemy

一词多义关系

,Homonymy

同音/同形异义关系，Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1)Dialectalsynonyms方言/地域同义词----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol—gasoline,lift--elevator;2)Stylisticsynonyms文体/风格同义词----synonymsdifferinginstyle,.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commenee;3)Synonymsthatdifferinconnotation感情同义词----thesearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,includingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout,.Thetwowordscollaboratorandaccomplicesynonymousinthattheysharethemeaningofapersonwhohelpsanother”buttheydifferinthatacollaboratorhelpsanotherindoingsthgood,whileanaccomplicehelpsanotherinacriminalact.Antonymy:Thetermisusedforoppositenessofmeaning;wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.1)Gradableantonyms等级反义关系----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,2)Complementaryantonyms互补反义关系----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,.alive-dead,male-female,3)Relationalopposites关系反义关系----exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,Hyponymy——thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Hyponymyisarelationofinclusion.Superordinate上义词:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms下义词:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.3)Co-hyponyms同下义词:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.Forexample:Superordinate:flowerHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,Polysemycanbedefinedasoneform(writtenorspoken)havingmultiplemeaningsthatareallrelatedbyextension,thatis,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,.able'maymean:ApieceoffurnitureAllthepeopleseatedatatableThefoodthatisputonatableAthinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc.Orderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,time,etc.Homonymy——thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones(

同音异形异义词

).Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs(

同形异义词.Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms(

完好同音同形异义词)..Homophones:rain/reign;Homographs:bow(v.)/bow(n.);Completehomonyms:fast(adj

knight/night;piece/peace;leak/leektear(v.)/tear(n.);Iead(v.)/lead(n.)快速的)./fast(v.斋戒);scale(n.)/scale(v.)必要的)thoughts,feelingsandintentions,and(ii)must**Felicityconditions合适条件：Context&Ianguageuse:Semanticfield语义场Thebasicassumptionunderlyingthetheoryofsemanticfieldisthatworddonotexistinisolation;rather,theyformdifferentsemanticfields,suchastheanimalfieldwhichcontainsallkindsofwordsthatdenoteanimals,orthecookingwhichincludesvariouswordsrelatedtocooking.Wordsthatbelongtothesamesemanticclassinthesamesemanticfield..Pragmatics语用学1.Definition:thestudyofIanguageinuseorIanguagecommunication;thestudyofmeaningincontext.Sentencemeaning句子意义agrammaticalconcept.Itisanabstract,self-containedunitinisolationfromcontext.(whatXmeans.)Utteraneemeaning:话语意义somethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose.(WhatyoumeanbyX)Utteraneemeaningmaybeseenasthesumtotalofsentencemeaningandcontext.语境：linguisticknowledge&extra-linguisticknowledge语言知识和超语言知识Linguisticknowledge:knowledgeofIanguage;knowledgeofwhathasbeensaidExtra-linguisticknowledge:knowledgeaboutthespecificsituation;knowledgeoftheworld;knowledgeabouteachother.Backgroundknowledge:commonsense,socialnormsandconversationrulesKnowledgeaboutthesituation:usuallyreferredtoassituationalknowledgeorsituationalcontext,includingtime,place,topicformalityandrelationbetweenthespeakerandhearer.Contextdeterminesthehearer'interpretationofwhatissaidtohimaswellasgoverningthespeaker'useofIanguage.3.Speechacttheory语言行为理论TheSpeechActtheorywasfirstputforwardbyJohnAustin,anOxfordprofessor,inHowtoDoThingswithWords(1962).ThetheorywaslaterdevelopedbyAnAmericanphilosopher,JohnSearle,inSpeechAct:AnEssayinthePhilosophyofLanguage(1975).Byspeechacts,werefertoactionsperformedbymeansofu卄erance.Austindiscoveredthatthesentencesweusefallintotwodifferenttypes:constatives表述句andperformatives施为句.Thetermconstativesisusedtorefertosentencesthatdescribewhatthespeakerisdoingatthetimeofspeaking.(Ipoursomeliquidintothetube.)Constativesareverifiable.Theycaneitherbetrueorfalse.Performativesdonotdescribethings.Theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Theutteraneeofthesesentences,instead,is,orisapartof,thedoingofanaction.(Ideclarethemeetingopen.)Austinsuggestedthefollowingfelicityconditions:Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure,andtherelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.Theproceduremustbeexecuted(i)correctlyand(ii)completely.Veryoften,(i)therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisite(followitupwithactionsasspecified.**GrammaticalandlexicalfeaturesofperformativesAsforthegrammaticalandlexicalfeaturesofperformativesentences,Austinnoticesthattypicalperformativesusefirstpersonsingularsubject,simplepresenttense,indicativemood,activevoiceandperformativeverbs.Butthesearenotabsolutecriteriaandtherearealwaysexceptions.Austin'newmodelofspeechacts:Locutionaryact言专家为:theutteraneeofasentencewithspecificsenseandreference;(It'coldinhere.)Thelocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliterarymeaningit'coldinhere.”Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestofthehearertoshutthewindow.Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearer'sshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.Illocutionaryact言外行为:themakingofastatement,offer,promise,etc.inutteringasentence,byvirtueoftheconventionalforceassociatedwithit;Whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryacts.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.Itisalsodesignedtoshowcohereneeinseeminglyincoherentconversations.Typesofillocutionaryacts:Austinclassifiedillocutionaryactsinto5types.SearlemadeimprovementsonthebasisofAustinAssertives陈述型:sentencesthatcommitthespeakertothetruthofsomething.Thedegreeofcommitmentvariesfromstatementtostatement.Thecommitmentissmallinguesshehadgotit”butverystronginf'solemnlyswearthathehadgotit.”

'

sclassification.

“Verbsincludedinthisfunctionare:guess,affirm,allege,assist,announce,forecast,insist,predict...Directives指令型:sentencesbywhichthespeakertriestogetthehearertodosomething.(Ibegyoutogivemesomeadvice.)Verbsthatcandenotethisgroupare:ask,request,plead,entreat,command,advise,etc.Commissives承诺型:sentencesthatcommitthespeakertosomefutureaction.Promisesandoffersarecharacteristicofthisgroup.(Ipromisetocometomorrow.)Warningisalsoacommissive,as"IfyoudothatagainI'llbeatyoutodeath”,becauseitalsocommitsthespeakertodoingsomething.Verbsthatcandenotethisgroupinclude:offer,pledge,swear,vow,volunteer,etc.Expressives表情型:sentencesthatexpressthespeaker'spsychologicalstateaboutsomething.(Iapologizeforsteppingonyourtoe.)Verbstypicallyusedforthiscategoryinelude:thank,congratulate,apologize,welcome,deplore,etc.Declarations宣告型:sentencesthatbringaboutimmediatechangeintheexistingstateofaffairs.(Youarefired.)Verbsthatcanbeusedforthisgroupinclude:declare,appoint,nominate,resign,name,fire,etc.Perlocutionaryact言后行为：thebringingaboutofeffectsontheaudieneebymeansofutteringthesentence,sucheffectsbeingspecialtothecircumstancesofutteranee.**IndirectspeechactsAmajorcontributionSearlemadetothedevelopmentofspeechacttheoryishistheoryofindirectspeechacts.Indirectspeechactsrefertothosesentencesthatperformoneillocutionaryactindirectlybyperforminganother.Forexample,“Canyoupassthesalt,please”isbothaquestionaboutthehearer'sabilitytopassthesaltandarequestofhimtopassthesalt.Theproblemhereishowitispossibleforthespeakertosayonethingandmeananotherandhowitispossibleforthehearertounderstandtheindirectspeechact.Typesofindirectrequests:Group1:Sentencesconcerningthehearersabilitytodosomething:CanyoureachthebookoverthereGroup2:Sentencesconcerningthespeakerswishorwantthatthehearerwilldosomething:(Iwouldlikeyoutowritethisdown.)Group3:Sentencesconcerningthehearesdoingsomething:WouldyoukindlygetoffmyfootGroup4:Sentencesconcerningthehearersdesireorwillingnesstodosomething:(Doyouwanttotypethisletterformenow)Group5:Sentencesconcerningreasonsfordoingsomething:(YoushouldwritetothemeverynowandThen.)cooperativeprinciples合作原贝UOurtalkexchangesaretosomedegreecooperativeefforts,andeachparticipantrecognizesinthemacommonpurposeorsetofpurposes.Inotherwords,weseemtofollowsomeprincipleswhenwetalk,andwecalltheprinciplesTheCooperativePrinciples",orCPinshort.

(在所有的语言交际活动中，说话人和听话人之间为

了达到某一个共同的交际目标，都有一种默契，一种双方都应遵守的原则，即合作原则。

)FourCategoriesofMaxims四个准则)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidenee.QuantityMaxim(数量准则)：1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.(Jane:WherewereyouthismorningTom:Iwasout.Here,Tom