《新编简明英语语言学教程》章期末复习

1、Chapter oneChapter oneIntroduction什么是语言学定义LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Thescopeoflinguistics 语言学分支 必考P2普通语言学 普通语言学 General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.The study of sounds, which are used in linguis

2、tic communication, is calledphonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （ 音位学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called（形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called 句法学

3、）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is calledpragmatics. （语用学）Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics 必考P3（1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be

4、descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive whilemodern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed

5、 to describe the languagepeople actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.规定性 PrescriptiveIt aims to lay downrules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.描述性 DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.Synchron

6、ic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.历时语言学 Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through

7、 time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language overa period of time.共时语言学 Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Mo

8、dern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, a

9、nd carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 必考名解 P4The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers t

10、o the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjec

11、ts of study of linguistics.语言 langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.言语 parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal

12、users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.语言能力 Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his lang

13、uage.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。Traditional grammar and modern linguistics 传统语法和现代语法It is generally believed that the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of Fde Saussure s boo

14、k “Course in General Linguistics ” in the early 20 thcentury. Before that is traditional grammar.Differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics: Modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not

15、the written.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into aLatin-based framework.(Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spo

16、ken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written language. 传统语法是规定性)什么是语言定义语 言 language：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。Design features of language P8It refers to th

17、e defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal systemIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal systemof communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多产性 （创造性）Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultu

18、ral transmission 文化传递arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressionsProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are abl

19、e to send.DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and

20、 learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.Functionsoflanguage 语言的功能Descriptive function, expressive function, social functionSix elements

21、of a speech event specified by Jakobson: Addresser - Emotive 感情功能Addressee - Conative 意动功能ContextReferential 所指功能Message - Poetic 诗歌功能Contact - Phatic communion 寒暄功能Code - Metalinguistic 无语言功能Chapter Two PhonologyChapter Two PhonologyPhonetics（语音学）定义Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of langu

22、age: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音Organs ofspeech3 个区域：the pharyngeal cavity 咽腔-the throat，the oral cavity 口腔-the mouth，nasal cavity鼻腔-the noseVoicelessWhen the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without cau

23、sing vibration ,thesounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.VoicingSounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.宽式音标和严式音标宽式音标 Broad transcriptionThe transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.严式音标 Narrow transcriptionThe transcripti

24、on of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.送气 Aspirated不送气 UnaspiratedClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds 英语语音的分类Vowel and consonant 元音辅音VowelThe sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstr

25、uction are called vowels.Classification of English consonantsa: in terms of the manners of articulation(发音方式): Stops(爆破音): pb td kg 6摩擦): /f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ h/ /r/ 塞擦): Liquids(清音): /l/ /r/ Nasals(鼻音): /m,n,/ Glides(滑音): /w j/b: in terms of place of articulation(发音部位) bilabials(双唇音): /p b m w/唇 齿 ): /f

26、 v/ 齿):/ alveolars(齿龈): /t d n l r s/ 腭音): /j td / 5 软腭): /k g/glottal(喉音): /h/Classification of English vowelsa: the position of the tone in mouth: front, central, back,b: the openness of the mouth: closed semi-closed semi-open and open. c: the shape of the lips: rounded and unroundedd: the length

27、of the vowels: tense and lax or long and shortPhonplogy 音位学2.3.2Phone, phoneme and allophone音素 Phonea phonetic unit or segment.音位 Phonemea collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.音位变体 AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the

28、 allophones of that phoneme.explain the sequential rule and the assimilation rule.序列规则 Sequential rulesRules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.同化规则 同化规则 Assimilation rulesThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequentialphoneme,

29、thus making the two phones similar.省略规则 Deletion ruleIts a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographicallyrepresented.Suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征重音 重音 Stress声调 ToneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the voc

30、al cords.语调 IntonationChapter ThreeMorphology 形态学Open class and closedclassOpen class words Open class words 实词，词数可增加Closed class words 虚词，词数稳定Morphemes 词素MorphemeThe basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.自由词素 Free MorphemeFree morphemes are independent u

31、nits of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.黏着词素 Bound morphemesBound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combinedwith other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.RootRoot is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed wi

32、thout total loss of identity.AffixThe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme.Derivational morpheme & inflectionalmorpheme派 生 Derivational morphemes: the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of wordsE.g. modern-modernize lengt

33、h-lengthen, fool-foolish, etc.曲 折 Inflectional morphemes: the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers,signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning,E.g. a) Number: tables apples carsb) Person

34、, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) Case: John/Johns派生词 Derivation复合词 CompoundsChapterFourSyntax 句法学句法学 Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentencesand e s t n e n f .何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如Phrase categories and their structures短

35、语分类与结构Phrase categoriesthe syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are calledphrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P).The structure: specifier + head + complement中心语）the word around which a phrase i

36、s formedSpecifier（标志成分）the words on the left side of the headsComplement（补足成分）the words on the right side of the headsPhrase structure rules:The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:NP (Det 限定词) + N + (PP)e.

37、g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP (Qual 修饰词) + V + (NP)e.g. always play games, finish assignments.AP (Deg 程 度 词 ) + A + (PP)very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (Deg) + P + (NP)on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the stationSNP VP (A sentence cons

38、ists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase) Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.句法类型 Syntactic categoryA word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object.表层结构 S-structureA level of syntactic representation af

39、ter the operation of necessary syntactic movement.深层结构 D-structureA level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.普遍语法 General grammarA system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language.NP the studen

40、t who likes linguistics consists of Det, N and S with Det being the Specifier ,N the head, S the complement. 子句是补足语。子句是补足语。4.6.5 Move and constraints on transformations位移和转换的限制 必考（定义和作用）This general rule is referred to as This general rule is referred to as Move , where “alpha” is a cover term for a

41、ny element thatcan be moved from one place to another.（我也不知道作用是啥，就会用）这章重点就是画图Chapter 5SemanticsSemantics: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view （对意义的研究）SynonymyIt refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close inmeaning are called synonyms.P

42、olysemyIt refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may havemore than one meaning.同音(形)异义 HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e,different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.上下义关系 Hypony

43、myIt refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a morespecific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.AntonymyIts the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.P

44、resuppositionIts a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.EntailmentEntailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entailssentence B.A: Mark married a blonde heiress.B: Mark married a blonde.句子间的意义关系 sense relation between sentencesX is synonym

45、ous with Y.互为同义、同对错X entails Y.包含关系-X 包含YX presupposes Y.假设、推测 由X 推测出YX is a contradiction. 矛盾句X is semantically anomalous.不等逻辑、错误逻辑5.2.3 Contextualism 语境论 必考，考啥未知P64 自己看书5.5.1 Componential analysis语义成分分析 语义成分分析 Componential analysisComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structure semanticis

46、ts（结构语义学）to analyzeword meaning.The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a world can be dissected into meaning components, calledsemantic 语义特征述谓分析 Predication analysisA way to analyze sentence meaning.主项（论元）argument+ （谓词）predicateEg. (The dogs)主项 (barks)谓词.带一个主项的述谓 one-place predica

47、tionChapter6pragmatics语用学 Pragmatics 必考The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.The study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning.Pragmatics=semantics+context语境 ContextIt is generall

48、y considerd as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.语句意义与话语意义 Sentence meaning V.S utterance meaningIf we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence.If we take it as something a speaker utters in a

49、certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.6.2言语行为理论 言语行为理论 Speech act theory 必考 P80Its an important

50、 theory in the pragmatic study of language. its a philosophical explanation ofthe nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question”what do we do when using language?”The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act（言内行为, the illocutionary act（言外行为）, the perlocutionary a

51、ct（言后行为）and the categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.言内行为 Locutionary ActA locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. its the act of conveying literalmeaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.言外行为 Illcotionary ActAn illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention its the act performedsaying somethin