毕业设计中外文翻译

1、毕业设计中外文翻译【篇一：毕业论文外文翻译（ 中英文 ） 】淮阴工学院毕业设计（论文）外文资料翻译学 院：专 业：姓 名：学 号： 外文出处： 附 件：交通工程学院 交通运输 杨宇 1081501135 ieee 1. 外文资料翻译译文； 2.外文原文。注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。附件 1 ：外文资料翻译译文交通拥堵收费和城市交通系统的可持续发展摘要：城市化和机动化的快速增长，通常有助于城市交通系统的发展，是经济性，环境性和社会可持续性的体现，但其结果是交通量无情增加，导致交通拥挤。道路拥挤定价已经提出了很多次，作为一个经济措施缓解城市交通拥挤，但还没有见过在实践中广泛使用，因为道路收费的一

2、些潜在的影响仍然不明。本文首先回顾可持续运输系统的概念，它应该满足集体经济发展，环境保护和社会正义的目标。然后，根据可持续交通系统的特点，使拥挤收费能够促进经济增长，环境保护和社会正义。研究结果表明，交通拥堵收费是一个切实有效的方式，可以促进城市交通系统的可持续发展。一、介绍交通拥堵收费在很久以前就已提出，作为一种有效的措施，来缓解的交通挤塞情况。交通拥堵收费的原则与目标是通过对选择在高峰拥挤时段的设施的使用实施附加收费，以纾缓拥堵情况。转移非高峰期一些出行路线，远离拥挤的设施或高占用车辆，或完全阻止一些出行，交通拥堵收费计划将在节省时间和降低经营成本的基础上，改善空气中的质量，减少能源消耗和

3、改善过境生产力。此计划在世界很多国家和地方都有成功的应用。继在20 世纪 70 年代初和 80 年代中期挪威与新加坡实行收费环，在 2003 年 2 月伦敦金融城推出了面积收费 ;直至现在，它都是已经开始实施拥挤收费的大都市圈中一个最知名的例子。然而，交通拥堵收费由于理论和政治的原因未能在实践中广泛使用。道路收费的一些潜在的影响尚不清楚，和城市发展的拥塞定价可持续性，需要进一步研究。可持续发展通常作为运输政策的评估基本目标。可持续交通的想法已经出现在交通运输部门的可持续发展的概念中，可以定义如下，“可持续发展的交通基础设施和出行政策是服务于经济发展，环境管理和社会公平的多重目标，用这个目标来优

4、化交通运输系统的使用，并达到经济和相关的社会和环境目标，以实现在不牺牲后代的能源的前提下，达到相同的目的。 ”可持续运输系统的要求是当前和未来几代的可持续发展的要求，即经济发展，环境保护和社会正义的主要支柱之间的动态平衡。在可持续发展的运输系统背景下，拥挤收费如何能够促进经济增长，环境保护和社会正义，是本文研究的课题。本文的其余部分的结构如下。在第2 节，对经济发展对交通挤塞定价的影响进行了阐述。第 3 节是对保护环境，社会正义和拥挤定价之间的关系进行了分析。有些结论是在第 5 节二、经济发展交通拥堵，造成旅行时间的增加，交通事故，能源消耗和环境恶化，已经造成了大量的经济损失。据报道，由交通挤

5、塞所造成的经济损失在 2003 年的北京和上海占其国内生产总值的 1 / 3 ，每年达 4000万元。在许多危害中，交通拥堵已被视为经济发展的障碍。任何可持续的交通管理政策应符合提高交通运输对经济发展的目标的影响，并且没有造成不利的环境影响和经济的进一步增长。那么拥塞的定价策略如何有效减少交通堵塞，减少污染物和温室气体排放，减少燃料使用，并减少当前交通运输系统的其他不利影响呢？交通拥堵收费的基本经济原则，可以在图 1 所示。从理论上说，个人用户决定是否使用一个特定的道路的成本权衡他们将承担对自己的利益。社会总效益可以由下图 1 中的面积测量。 mpc 的曲线表示用户成本只反映每个用户负担的成本

6、为新用户（即 “边缘 ” 的用户）。然而，边际用户的场合，如空气污染，延迟给其他用户，他不承担额外的社会成本。每个边缘用户和他所造成的社会成本的负担的总成本是每次出行的边际社会成本。边际社会成本是由图 1 中的 msc曲线表示。图 1 交通拥堵收费的影响拥挤收费是交通需求管理的重要手段，最初只是影响交通出行的决定。实践证明拥挤收费能有效地规范交通出行时间和空间分布，促进道路资源的有效利用，提高运输业务的效率。在新加坡的拥塞定价实施表明，交通量下降了 17 ，在高峰时段，伦敦的经验也表明，定价方案是成功的。我们可以得出结论，减少交通挤塞，将促进经济的可持续发展。收费会影响旅客的预算，将导致不仅在

7、模式上的转换，而且是更广泛的经济变化，将伴随着地理再分配的过程。一些人担心，交通拥堵收费可能对中部地区的经济产生负面影响，特别是在零售方面。产生了相反的论调，不过，减少交通挤塞，应该是服务于更广泛的业务，以降低成本，使他们成为更具有竞争力的国家。零售活动的位置也是由个人首选的购物场所。众所周知，个人倾向于购买的商店在他们的居住地附近，因此零售企业不能轻易迁出核心区，因为许多人住在中心区。这种方便客户的依赖，解释了为什么零售生产跌幅小于核心区的其他主要行业的输出。交通拥堵收费减少在繁忙时间的挤塞情况，并增加在其他时段的交通挤塞情况。通过向公共交通和大量出租车辆转向，交通拥堵收费降低所有时段定价领

8、域人次。除减少交通挤塞，如果考虑到改善空气质量和减少燃料消耗等方面，交通拥堵收费形成的经济效益将是相当可观的。三、环保在中国，环境问题日益严重。据报道，中国是二氧化碳排放大国，有 7 个城市在世界严重污染的城市名单中。交通运输对环境的影响，涵盖了不同的影响，包括空气污染，噪音，气候变化的范围，例如。汽车是城市空气和噪音污染的占主导地位的生产者，包括一氧化碳，氮氧化物和大气飘尘。这些污染物是关键因素，许多呼吸系统疾病，如哮喘，以及其他的影响人体健康的方面，如头疼，眼疾等症状。据世界银行估计，在发展中国家，有0.5 亿人每年死亡与于交通工具空气污染物排放有关，这是与交通事故类似的死亡人数，。交通是

9、不可替代的，因为它是生产链的一部分。出于这个原因，交通系统必须发展和标准化，运输服务的有效性，是必须增加的，同时必须减少或防止环境污染。由于道路交通排放是一个复杂的系统，不能完全统一一个输出。从车辆样本分析不同的驾驶条件下的排放量这是自然的。加州空气资源委员会指出车辆的拥堵走走停停显著增加了排放量。作为一个例子，一个报告估计， 10 英里的路程，用普通的 1987 年的汽车，以55 英里的速度运行hc 排放废气的重量为 1 克，而 hc 在 20 英里的平均速度下的排放量是7 克，典型的走走停停模式。四、社会正义可持续发展有三个广泛的目标：经济的可持续发展，环境保护和社会正义，这三个目标都要解

10、决可持续发展这个问题。经济发展和环境保护的投入一直受到关注，但投入给社会正义的关注较少。社会正义（公平）包含的经济权益和环境权益。 经济公平的问题，造成交通拥堵收费是难以完全解决的。有些人认为道路收费是倒退，因为它更多地让承担较差的汽车用户，只需短距离行程的用户，或者是生活水平欠佳的用户，不管是什么原因，别无选择，只能乘车。这些参数可以通过制定更加灵活的收费制度，在一定程度上抵消。它已被接受的任何形式的道路收费将引入一些不公平现象。关键是要保持这些最低限度，并找到那些没有受益于交通拥堵收费的补偿方式。在实践中，收入最低的旅客，他们通常乘坐公共交通工具或徒步旅行，是最有可能受益的。对于传统的运输

11、系统，对汽油的税率是相同的，不管运输业的用户是否是在拥挤或非拥挤的时段行驶。拥挤收费是选择在交通高峰期间对拥挤设施的使用实施附加费，预计这样将减少这种不公平的公平问题解决在运输已基本上涉及经济权益，包括公共交通和私人交通之间的【篇二：本科毕业设计外文翻译需要注意的问题】外文翻译需要注意的问题，外文文献的出处不要翻译成中文，且写在中文译文的右上角（不是放在页眉处）；会议要求：名称、地点、年份、卷（期），等作者姓名以及作者的工作单位也不用必须翻译；abstract 翻译成 “摘要 ”，不要翻译成 “文章摘要 ”等其他词语；key words 翻译成 “关键词 ”introduction 翻译成 “

12、引言 ”（ 不是导言 ）各节的标号i、 ii 等可以直接使用，不要再翻译成 “第一部分 ”“第二部分 ”，等。 7 注意排版格式，都是单排版，行距1.25 ，字号小 4 号，等（按照格式要求）里面的图可以拷贝粘贴，但要将图标、横纵指标的英文标注翻译成中文里面的公式、表不可以拷贝粘贴，要自己重新录入、重新画表格大家翻译时，可以将太长的句子用两句或多句描述。【篇三：毕业设计外文翻译】广西大学毕业设计（论文）外文翻译毕业设计（论文）题目：外文题目：friction , lubrication of bearing译文题目：轴承的摩擦与润滑系 专 业：机械工程制造及其自动化班 级：学 号：姓 名：指导

13、教师：2012 年 03 月 03 日外文文献原文：friction , lubrication of bearingin many of the problem thus far , the student has been asked to disregard or neglect friction . actually , friction is present to some degree whenever two parts are in contact and move on each other. the term friction refers to the resistanc

14、e of two or more parts to movement.friction is harmful or valuable depending upon where it occurs. friction isnecessary for fastening devices such as screws and rivets which depend upon friction to hold the fastener and the parts together. belt drivers, brakes, and tires are additional applications

15、where friction is necessary.the friction of moving parts in a machine is harmful because it reduces the mechanical advantage of the device. the heat produced by friction is lost energy because no work takes place. also , greater power is required to overcome the increased friction. heat is destructi

16、ve in that it causes expansion. expansion may cause a bearing or sliding surface to fit tighter. if a great enough pressure builds up because made from low temperature materials may melt.there are three types of friction which must be overcome in moving parts: （1）starting,(2)sliding, and(3)rolling.

17、starting friction is the friction between two solids that tend to resist movement. when two parts are at a state of rest, the surface irregularities of both parts tend to interlock and form a wedging action. to produce motion in these parts, the wedge-shaped peaks and valleys of the stationary surfa

18、ces must be made to slide out and over each other. the rougher the two surfaces, the greater is starting friction resulting from their movement .since there is usually no fixed pattern between the peaks and valleys of two mating parts, the irregularities do not interlock once the parts are in motion

19、 but slide over each other. the friction of the two surfaces is known as sliding friction. as shown in figure ,starting friction is always greater than sliding friction .rolling friction occurs when roller devces are subjected to tremendous stress which cause the parts to change shape or deform. und

20、er these conditions, the material in front of a roller tends to pile up and forces the object to roll slightly uphill. this changing of shape , known as deformation, causes a movement of molecules. as a result ,heat is produced from the added energy required to keep the parts turning and overcome fr

21、iction.the friction caused by the wedging action of surface irregularities can be overcomepartly by the precision machining of the surfaces. however, even these smooth surfaces may require the use of a substance between them to reduce the friction still more. this substance is usually a lubricant wh

22、ich provides a fine, thin oil film. the film keeps the surfaces apart and prevents the cohesive forces of the surfaces from coming in close contact and producing heat .another way to reduce friction is to use different materials for the bearing surfaces and rotating parts. this explains why bronze b

23、earings, soft alloys, and copper and tin iolite bearings are used with both soft and hardened steel shaft. the iolite bearing is porous. thus, when the bearing is dipped in oil, capillary action carries the oil through the spaces of the bearing. this type of bearing carries its own lubricant to the

24、points where the pressures are the greatest.moving parts are lubricated to reduce friction, wear, and heat. the most commonly used lubricants are oils, greases, and graphite compounds. each lubricant serves a different purpose. the conditions under which two moving surfaces are to work determine the

25、 type of lubricant to be used and the system selected for distributing the lubricant.on slow moving parts with a minimum of pressure, an oil groove is usually sufficient to distribute the required quantity of lubricant to the surfaces moving on each other .a second common method of lubrication is th

26、e splash system in which parts moving in a reservoir of lubricant pick up sufficient oil which is then distributed to all moving parts during each cycle. this system is used in the crankcase of lawn-mower engines to lubricate the crankshaft, connecting rod ,and parts of the piston.a lubrication syst

27、em commonly used in industrial plants is the pressure system. in this system, a pump on a machine carries the lubricant to all of the bearing surfaces at a constant rate and quantity.there are numerous other systems of lubrication and a considerable number oflubricants available for any given set of

28、 operating conditions. modern industry pays greater attention to the use of the proper lubricants than at previous time because of the increased speeds, pressures, and operating demands placed on equipment and devices.although one of the main purposes of lubrication is reduce friction, anysubstance-

29、liquid , solid , or gaseous-capable of controlling friction and wear between sliding surfaces can be classed as a lubricant.varieties of lubricationunlubricated sliding. metals that have been carefully treated to remove all foreign materials seize and weld to one another when slid together. in the a

30、bsence of such a highdegree of cleanliness, adsorbed gases, water vapor ,oxides, and contaminants reduce frictio9n and the tendency to seize but usually result in severe wear; this is called“ unlubricated ” or dry sliding.fluid-film lubrication. interposing a fluid film that completely separates the

31、 sliding surfaces results in fluid-film lubrication. the fluid may be introducedintentionally as the oil in the main bearing of an automobile, or unintentionally, as in the case of water between a smooth tuber tire and a wet pavement. although the fluid is usually a liquid such as oil, water, and a

32、wide range of other materials, it may also be a gas. the gas most commonly employed is air. boundary lubrication. a condition that lies between unlubricated sliding andfluid-film lubrication is referred to as boundary lubrication, also defined as that condition of lubrication in which the friction b

33、etween surfaces is determined by the properties of the surfaces and properties of the lubricant other than viscosity. boundary lubrication encompasses a significant portion of lubrication phenomena and commonly occurs during the starting and stopping off machines.solid lubrication. solid such as gra

34、phite and molybdenum disulfide are widely used when normal lubricants do not possess sufficient resistance to load or temperature extremes. but lubricants need not take only such familiar forms as fats, powders, and gases; even some metals commonly serve as sliding surfaces in some sophisticated mac

35、hines.function of lubricantsalthough a lubricant primarily controls friction and ordinarily does perform numerous other functions, which vary with the application and usually are interrelated .friction control. the amount and character of the lubricant made available to sliding surfaces have a profo

36、und effect upon the friction that is encountered. for example, disregarding such related factors as heat and wear but considering friction alone between the same surfaces with on lubricant. under fluid-film conditions, friction is encountered. in a great range of viscosities and thus can satisfy a b

37、road spectrum of functional requirements. under boundary lubrication conditions , the effect of viscosity on friction becomes less significant than the chemical nature of the lubricant.wear control. wear occurs on lubricated surfaces by abrasion, corrosion ,andsolid-to-solid contact wear by providin

38、g a film that increases the distance between the sliding surfaces ,thereby lessening the damage by abrasive contaminants and surface asperities.temperature control. lubricants assist in controlling corrosion of the surfaces themselves is twofold. when machinery is idle, the lubricant acts as a prese

39、rvative. when machinery is in use, the lubricant controls corrosion by coating lubricated parts with a protective film that may contain additives to neutralize corrosive materials. the ability of a lubricant to control corrosion is directly relatly to the thickness of the lubricant film remaining on

40、 the metal surfaces and the chermical composition of the lubricant.other functionslubrication are frequently used for purposes other than the reduction of friction. some of these applications are described below.power transmission. lubricants are widely employed as hydraulic fluids in fluid transmission devices.insulation. in specialized applications such as transformers and switchgear , lubricants with