文稿土土写作

1、argumentition evidence (logicalysis)Merely based on unfounded amption and dubious (suspicious)evidence,thesementdrawsat. To substantiate(support)the,thearguerprovides/presents/ list/ show evidencet.t.Inaddition,he heindicatesFurthermore,citestheresult of a recent survey in support ofthisthemendation

2、.Atrstglance,author!sargumentappearstobesomewhatconvincing,butfurtherreectionrevealstitomitssomesubstantialconcernstshouldbeaddressed argument.to substantiate the 1.2.3.present theitionlist the evidencepoout the potential problemsbody paragraph.summarize the impd logicpoout the potential prob

3、lemspresent the othossibilitieswithout ruling out thesibilities,the amption is not warranted.主体段注意事项语言表达清晰、层次分明注意段落内部的句子联系；注意关联词的使用。注意段落与段落之间的衔接（关联词、承上启下句型）d.如果超过三个逻辑错误，可以把相关的逻辑错误放在同一段阐释e. 逻辑的排列要注意是否能够构成让步关系Tosumup,this itsarguerfailstosubstantiateclaimthat,becausetheevidencecitedintheanalysis does

4、not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To maketheargumentmoreconvincing,thearguerwouldhave withtoprovidemoreinformationregard would to_.haveto Additionally,he demonstratethat.Therefore,iftheargumenthadincludedthe itgiven wouldfactorsdiscussedabove,have been more thoroughand logically

5、acceptable.1.resettheitionisnotreasonable2.pooutt theargument shouldconsider the above evidence3.(subjunctivemood)onlywhentherelevant wouldfactorswerementionedtheargumentbemoreconvincing.充分必要条件(1) 原文：只要有A就足以产生B(only)反驳： A不是导致B的唯一条件（可能需要其它条件一起导致B）For the past five years, consumers in California have

6、been willing to pay twice as much for oysters from thenortheasternCoast as fulfCoast oysters. This trend began shortly after harmful bacteria were found in a few raw Gulf Coast oysters. But scientists have now devised apros for killing the bacteria. Onceconsumers are made aware of the increased safe

7、ty of Gulf Coast oysters, they are likely to be willing to pay asmuch fulf Coast as fornortheastern and greatCoast oysters, ulf Coastrofits foystroducers will follow.a. Theargumentamestoohastilyt will nesarily resulthebehavior t the argument predicts.Perhaps,. Moreover,.b. The facttA is not sufcient

8、 forthe predictiontB .(2)BAA,B AThe following is a letter from an editoribublishing Company to thecompanys.In recent years, Liber hasunfortuna original misy moved away from its: to publish the worksof regional small-town authors instead of those of big-city authors. Just last year, 90 percent of the

9、 novels we published were written by authors whomaain a residence in a big city.Although this change mus ended to increase profits, ive been sobviously backfired, because Liber isnow in serious finanl trouble. Theonly way to address this problem is toreturn to our original mis. If wereturn to publis

10、hing only the works of regional small-town authors, ourfinanl troubles will soon beresolved.The editor!smendation dependsonthean Amption causedtnofactorsotherB .However,acloser scrutiny of this line of r e a s o n i n gr e v e a l stt h i samption is a poor one. A myriad ofother might B .rulingfacto

11、rs,includingor,justaslikelybethecauseofTo bespecic,.Withoutsibleouttheseandothercauses,the editorcannotjustiablyconcludet only by can.The themendationdependsuponamptiontnoalternativemeans of are available, yet no evidence is offered to substantiate thisamption. Admittedly, is someevidencet_().Howeve

12、r,itisentirelysibletotherrathern would also()In order to raise the level of readingskillsofourdistrictselementary-school students to a levelleastrepresentsthe nationalaverage,weshouldadopttheBacktoBasicsreading program, After all, this readingprogramhasasuperiorrecordforimproving youngstersreadingsk

13、illsamong adoptingnationwide.ByBacktoBasicstheparentsofouryoung students would be used to thefactt their children will develop thereading skills they will need throughout their lives.Survey/Study (调查类错误)(1) 样本存在问题原题： a. 调查对象不随机，不具有代表性。（注意调查对象前的修饰语）b.调查数量有问题（不够多）调查对象的选择不够中立。c.d.调查对象不随机The following a

14、ppeared in a newspaper article about law firms in the city of Megalopolis.egalopolis, the number of law schoolgraduates who went to work for large, corporate firms declined by 15 percent over the last three years, whereas an increasing number of graduates took jobs at small, general practice firms.

15、Even though large firms usually offer much higher salaries, law school graduates are choosing to work for the smaller firms most likely because they experience greater job satisfaction atsmaller firms. In a survey of-yearstudents at a leading law school, mostagreed with the sementt earning ahigh sal

16、ary was less important to them job satisfaction. This finding suggests the large, corporate firms of Megalopolis will need to offer graduates more benefits and incentives and reduce the number of hours they must work.n t T h ef o l l o w i n gi samemorandum writtenbythedirectorofneltotheoftheCedar C

17、orporation.ItwouldbeamistaketorehiretheGood-TasteCompanytosupplythe nextfood inouremployeecafeteriayear. It is the second most expensivecaterer pricesinthecity.Inaddition,itshave risenineach of thelastthree years, and it refuses to provide meals for people on special diets. Justlast month threeemplo

18、yees complained to me that they no longer eat in the cafeteria because they findtheexperienceunbearable.Ourcompany should instead hire DiscountFoods.Discountisafamily-ownedlocalcompanyanditoffers avariedmenu of fishandpoultry.Irecentlytastedasamplelunchatoneofthemany companies that Discount servesan

19、d itwasdelicious anindicationthathiringDiscountwillleadtoimproved employee satisfaction.(2)调查结果存在问题b.调查结果模糊（没有说明基原题：数），有误导性。c. 回应人数不明确。A. Selective sampleB. Quantity of the sample subject/ respondentUnlessthesurveyorssampledasufficient number ofand did sor a n d o m l ya c r o s s surveyt h ee n t i

20、 r espectrum,theresultsarenotreliable to gaugegenerally.The numberofrespondents/samplesi ni t s e l fd o e sn o te n s u r erepresentativeness. For example, if thesampleincludedonly,thentheresults would no doubt suggest . Or if , would account for only alittlepercentage,whichwouldrenderthe result of

21、 the survey meaningless.The mustrespondents/subjects/samplesbestatisticallysignificantin thenumberandrepresentativeofoverall.(2)Result of the survey攻击“无相对比值”The argument tells us that “many” (a number of ) .However,thespeakerfailstoindicate the percentage of , so this evidence is far too vague to be

22、 meaningful.攻击“无绝对数值”The author fails to theprovide absoluteinformationregardingnumber of .(Who conducted the survey?)Thesurveyorshouldbenonaligned/cross-bencher.Cause and Effect(因果错误)(1) 原题：A导致了B(because/hence/therefore/since/and)反驳：A 与B 不一定有因果关系The arguer fails to establish the causalrelationshipb

23、etclaimnthefactt This_andthet_.argument is unacceptable unless there is compelling evidence to support theconnection betn these two events.Perhaps,forexle,_resultsfrom.(2) 原题：A发生在B前，因此A是产生B的原因。（after this, since then）反驳：时间先后关系不一定是因果关系Based on the factt occurredafter_,theeditorinferstshould berespons

24、ible for .However,thesequenceoftheseevents,proveinitself,doesnotsufcetot ear one.r development causedthelaterItmighthave resultedfromsomeothereventsinstead:_.Withoutrulingoutscenariossuchasthese,theeditorcannotestablishacause-and-effect nandrelationshipbet_uponwhicheditor!sthemendation depends.(3) A

25、BThe following appearedhe letter toan editor of a Myrian newspr.Underernor Winslowsleadership over the past four years, Myria has enjoyed unprecedented prosperity. Average wage increasesthis year are highern they havebeen at any time since the 1970s, the number of people who report being unemployed

26、has decreased by 10 percent, and construction of new homes is up by one third. In contrast,over the past four yearsernorWinslows opponent, Mr. Homer, has been mayor of a city in which only a small number of new businesses have opened. If Myrians want another four years like the past four years, they

27、should reelecternor Winslow.The bettargumentobservesacorrelationn A and B, then concludestheformeris thecause ofthelatter.However,theargumentfailstoruleoutothersibleexplanationsfor A or B . For exle, . AnyofthesefactorsmightleadtoB.Without ruling out all other factors it isunfairtoconcludetAisrespon

28、sible for B.Argument:Manyseshaveenactedlawssprohibitingenvironmentalemisofnitrocarbonbyproducts,onthebasis shownt these byproducts have beentocauseUrkinsDiseaseinhumans. These laws have clearly beeneffectiveinpreventingthe edisease.Afterall,ineverysthasenacted Urkinssucha lawtheincidenceofdiseaseis

29、lowern ainanysethasnotenactedsimilarlaw.Individual and Group(个体与群体关系)(1) 原题：将个体的特征推广到整体反驳：个体的特征不一定是整体的特征The following appeared in amemorandum issued by the strategic planning department at Omni Inc.Mesa Foods, a manufacturer of snack foods that currently markets its products within a relatively smal

30、l region of the country, has strong growth potential. Mesa enjoyed a 20 percent increase in profits last year, and its best-selling product, Diabolique Salsa, has had increased sales over each of the past three years. Since Omni Inc. is interested in reaching 14-to-25 year olds, the age group that c

31、onsumes the most snack food, we should buy Mesa Foods, and concentrate in particular on marketing Diabolique Salsa throughout thecountry.The argument rests on the assumptionthat not个体案例 typify 整体情况. If this isthecase,thenitisentirelypossible that 在另一个地方，上述个案的结果不会发生相同的情况.Thus,lackingmoreinformationab

32、out,itis thedifficult memostoassessthemeritofmendation.(2) 原题：将整体的特征类推到每个个体 反驳：整体的特征不代表每个个体都拥有此特征。a.One problemwiththeargumentisthatitassumesthat thenationwide(characteristicsof agroup thatapplytoeverymemberofgroup) applies statistics about _ equallyto个体成员， Yetthismightnotbethecase,foravarietyofposs

33、iblereasons.Perhaps;orperhaps .Without rulingoutsuchpossibilities,theauthorcannot.justifiablyconcludethatb.The argument assumes that trend inthe specific region of reflects thegeneral thethis crutrendin as a whole. Yet,failstosubstantiatel amption. It is entirelysiblet_hasitsown thefeatureortrendtis

34、justinopite direction.ArgumentThe fromfollowing theappearedofinamemoCutters,aregional chain of hair salons:Itisawell-establishedfacttintodays society more and more peoplearemovingfromthesuburbstodowntown areas. So in order to boostCutterssaggingprofits ourwe hairshould salonsrelocateeachofcurrently

35、located in a suburban mall to the downtown area nearest to it.plete Thought (考虑不全面)(1) 原题：只考虑优点或者缺点反驳：潜在的缺点或者优点The following appeared in a letter to the editor of the Parkville DailyNewspr.Throughout the country last year, as more and more children belowof nine participated in youth-league softball

36、and soccer, over 80,000 ofthese young playerffered injuries.Whenerviewed for a recent study,youth-league softball players in several major cities also reportedpsychological prere from coachesand parents to win games. Furthermore, education experts sayt long practiess for these t could besports take

37、away timeused for academic activities. Since the disadvantages apparently outweighany advantages, we in Parkville shoulddiscontinueanized athleticcompetition for children under nine.*The following appeared in a magazinefocusing on healnd fitness.A recent study of several nutritionalsupplements showe

38、dt subjectswho took a daily pill containing luceenhad significantly better viofdistant objectsn subjectshestudy who took other nutritional supplements. Luceen appearsnaturally in a tasty fruitt grows onthe island of Bonopia, and very fewinhabitants oft island weareyeglasses or other corrective lense

39、s.Such eviden who develop viuggestst peopleproblems shouldtake regular luceen supplements.Theauthorfailstoconsiderthesiblenegativeimpactsbroughtabout by .(2) : protThe author!sunwarranted.t isProtisafactorofnotIt!sonlyrevenue,butalsotcosts.entirelysiblethecosts costs offset,of_ ,or other assotedwith

40、,willeven outweigh the revenue. Besides, amyriad of othersibleoccurrence, economic such as unfavorable conditions, might preventbeing as protable in thefromforeseeablefutures as the argument predicts.The Change化）oftheSituation（情况变原题：过去是某情况，所以现在(将来)依然是这个情况（severalyearsago，based on the current trend）。

41、反驳：随着时间的变化，各种情况会发，因此无法预测现在(将来)的情况是否与之前相同。The following appeared in a memo written by a dean at Buckingham College.To serve the housing needs of our students, Buckingham College should build a new dormitory. Buckinghams enrollment is growing and, based on current trends, should double over the next f

42、ifty years, thus making existing dormitories inadequate. Moreover, the average rent for an apartment in our town has increased in recent years.Consequently, students will find itincreasingly difficult to afford off-cus housing. Finally, an attractivenew dormitory would make prospective students more

43、 likely to enroll at Buckingham.Theauthorclaimst_,because . The authoramesthe without justication tbackground conditions have remainedthesameatdifferenttime.Theassumptionisunwarrantedbecausethingsrarelyremain thesameoverextended periodsoftime.TherearelikelyallkindsofdifferencebetweenAandB.Forexample

44、,A;however, scenarios,B_.Any wouldoftheseiftrue,servetoundermine the claim that Promise (承诺类错误)原题：主观承诺，无客观证据。反驳：未必会实现这样的承诺。The following appeared as part of a letter to the editor of a local newspaper.During her three years in office, ernor Riedeburg has shownherself to be a worthy leader. Since she

45、 took office, crime has decreased, the number of jobs created per year has doubled, and the number ofpeople choosing to live in our sehas increased. These trends are likely to continue if she is reelected. In addition, Ms. Riedeburg has promised to take steps to keep big companies here, thereby prov

46、iding jobs for anynew residents. Anyho looks atMs. Riedeburgs record canltshe is the best-qualified candidate for ernor.Falseogy (错误类比)(1) 原题：A做了某事，B也可以效仿。反驳：A不一定做了就有好处；即使A获得了好处，不代表B一定能获得好处。The following appeared as a letter to the editor of a farming publication.With continuing publicity about the

47、need for healthful diets, and with new research about the harmful effects of eating too much sugar, nationwide demand for sugar will no doubt decline. Therefore, farmers in our s should use the land on which they currently grow sugar cane to growepeanuts, a foodt is rich in proteinand low in sugar.

48、Farmersheneighboring country of Palin greyincreased their production of peanuts last year, and their total revenues fromt crop were quite high.Thearguersmendationreson what might be a poor/falseogy falselybetn A and B. Theogydependsonthea andmptiont inbothAB aresimilar.However, it is entirelysiblet

49、A与B存在很大的不同.Inshort,withoutsibleaccounting differenfor betimportantnAandB,the thearguer cannotreasonablyproveproed method will help A .Selective Comparison选择性比较原题：将A的某一个小方面和B的某一个小方面比较，得出A与B总体比较的结果。 反驳：小的方面的差异不能代表总体差异。The following appeared in a memofrom the vicet builds shop the country.of a company

50、malls throughoutThe surface of a section of Route 101, paved two years ago by McAdam Road Builders, is now badly cracked and marred by dangerous potholes. Inanothart of the se, a section ofRoute 66, paved by Appian Roadwaysmoren four years ago, is still ingood condition. Appian Roadways hasrecently

51、purchased se-of-the-artpaving machinery, and is hired anew quality-control manager. Becauseof itperior work and commitmentto quality, we should contract withAppian Roadways rathernMcAdam Road Builders to constructthe ac shops roads for all our new malls.False Dilemma (非此即彼)原题：提出理由A和B，排除掉A，因此理由一定是B。反

52、驳：还有其它理由，不一定只有A和B。Scientists studying historical weathatternshave discoveredthe mid-sixth century,Earth suddenly became significantly cooler.Although few historical recordrvive fromttime, some accounts found both in Asia and Europe mention a dimming of the sun and extremely cold temperatures. Either a hugevolcanic eruption or a large meteorite colliding with