上海电力学院自动化专业英语句子

1、PAGE PAGE 27A: 11: A feeedbaack ssysteem iss oftten bbetteer abble tto coope wwith unexxpectted ddistuurbannces and unceertaiintiees abbout the systtems dyynamiic beehaviior.一一个反馈系系统经常能能更好的应应付不期望望的扰动作作用以及系系统动态性性能的不确确定性，/Howweverr ,itt neeed noot bee truue thhat ccloseed-looop ccontrrol iis allwayss

2、supperioor too opeen-looop ccontrrol .然而，闭闭环控制并并不一定总总是优于开开环控制，/Wheen thhe meeasurred ooutpuut haas errrorss whiich aare ssuffiicienntly largge ,aand wwhen unexxpectted ddistuurbannces are relaativeely uunimpportaant ,clossed-lloop conttrol can havee a pperfoormannce wwhichh is infeeriorr to openn-lo

3、oop coontrool.当输输出的测量量误差足够够大或不期期望的扰动动无关紧要要时，闭环环控制的性性能就会比比开环控制制的差2：An anallogtodigiital convverteer(ADDC) iis ussed tto coonverrt a conttinuoouslyy varriablle siignall to a coorresspondding digiital formm whiich ccan ttake any one of aa fixxed nnumbeer off posssiblle biinaryy vallues.一模拟数字转转换器（AADC）用

4、用来将连续续变换信号号编程相应应的数字量量，这数字字量可是可可能的二进进制数值中中的一固定定值。3：A nnew pphasee in roboot apppliccatioons hhas bbeen openned wwith the deveelopmment of “inteelliggent roboot ” . 一一个机器人人应用的新新局面随着着“智能机器器人”的发展而而已近打开开。4：An exammple is tthe sspeedd conntroll sysstem of aa turrbinee-gennerattor sset iin a poweer sttatio

5、on ,wwhosee maiin puurposse iss to mainntainn thee gennerattor sspeedd as nearrly cconsttant as ppossiible 。电厂涡涡轮发电机机组就是一一个例子，它它的主要目目的是维持持发电机的的转速尽可可能的接近近于恒值。5：An exammple of tthis typee of senssors woulld bee a vvisioon seensorr usees too loccate and idenntifyy objjectss andd possitioon off thee rob

6、bot iitsellf ,ccombiined withh a ttactiile ssensoor ussed tto deetectt thee disstribbutioon off forrce aand ppresssure ,andd dettermiine ttorquue ,wweighht ,ccenteer off masss annd coompliiancee of the mateeriall it handdles .这类传传感器的一一例是视觉觉传感器，用用于对物体体和机器人人本身的定定位和辨别别；并结合合触觉传感感器用于探探测力和压压力的分布布和确定力力矩，质量

7、量，重心，按按所抓取的的材料决定定握持力。/Thhe haand-eeye ccoorddinattion for geneeral-purppose maniipulaationn willl bee exttremeely ppowerrful in tthe iindusstriaal woorld .这种用用于通用的的手眼配合合操作在工工业界将会会变得极为为有效力。 6：A roboot , oncee prooperlly prrograammedd ,wiill nnot pput aa chiip inn thee wroong pplacee .一旦旦适当地编编程，机器器人就不

8、会会将芯片发发错地方。C: 11：Caree musst bee takken wwhen connnectiing llogicc cirrcuitts too enssure thatt theeir llogicc levvels and currrent ratiings are comppatibble连接接逻辑电路路时，必须须小心翼翼翼，以保证证它们的逻逻辑电平和和电流额定定值是兼容容的。/The outpput vvoltaages prodducedd by a loogic circcuit are normmallyy speecifiied iin teerms of t

9、the wworstt casse vaaluess wheen soourciing oor siinkinng thhe maaximuum raated currrentss.由逻辑辑电路产生生的输出电电压通以拉拉出或灌入入最大额定定电流时，按按最弱情况况下数值说说定义。2：Connsideer thhe arrmatuure-ccontrrolleed D.C .mmotorr shoown sschemmaticcallyy in Fig.25.11. 图225.1是是电枢控制制的直流电电机。/Suchh mottors are fairrly ccommoon coomponnen

10、tss in systtems of iinterrest to ccontrrol eenginneerss . 这这种电机是是控制工程程师在系统统中应用的的比较普遍遍的元件。/Thhe toorquee m(tt) deevelooped by tthe mmotorr andd hennce iits aangullar vveloccity w(t) (orr in somee appplicaationns ,iits aangullar pposittion) aree conntrollled by vvaryiing tthe vvoltaage vv(t) appllied

11、to tthe aarmatture windding . 可以以靠改变电电枢绕组上上的电压vv (t) 去控制制电机的转转矩m (t) ,从而控制制角速度 w (tt) ( 在某些应应用中为角角位移) 。/TThe sstatoor (ffieldd) wiindinng iss connnectted tto a consstantt volltagee souurce ,so thatt thee currrentt andd hennce tthe mmagneetic fluxx f inn thee fieeld wwindiing aare aapprooximaatelyy c

12、onnstannt .定定子（磁场场）绕组接接到恒压电电源上，因因此其电流流所产生的的磁场中的的磁通f 是接接近于常数数的。D: 11：Denotting the masss momment of iinerttia oof thhe arrmatuure aas J ,andd asssuminng thhat ttheree is an eexterrnallly appplieed looad ttorquue mLL(t) and a viiscouus frrictiion ttorquue Cww(t) oppoosingg thee mottion ,we may writte

13、设设电枢的转转动惯量为为J，外加加负载转矩矩为mL (t) ,摩擦转转矩为Cww(t),两者都是是阻碍运动动的，于是是得E: 11：Eveery ttime the inteerfacce iss useed too reaad a trannsduccer ,the samee opeeratiions mustt be carrried out to cconveert tthe iinputt nummber intoo a mmore convvenieent fform.接口总是是用于读取取传感器的的值，同时时还要将输输入数值转转换成更容容易的形式式。F: 1：Fig11.4 ssh

14、owss vollt-ammperee currves for a meetal filaamentt lammp ,VV1()，annd foor a carbbonfiilameent llamp V2()，图11.4中的的曲线V11()和V22()分别表表示-金属属丝灯泡和和碳丝灯泡泡的伏-安安特性曲线线，/As is sseen , thhe reelatiion bbetweeen tthe vvoltaage aand tthe ccurreent iin eaach llamp is ootherr thaan liinearr . 如如图所示每每个灯泡的的电流和电电压之间的的关

15、系并不不是线性的的，/TThe rresisstancce off thee mettal-ffilamment lampp inccreasses ,and thatt of the carbbon-ffilamment lampp deccreasses wwith incrreasee of currrent.随着电流流的增加，金金属丝灯泡泡的电阻是是增加的，而而碳丝灯泡泡的电阻是是减少的。2：Figgure 21.11 shoows aa commmon appllicattion of aautommaticc conntroll fouund iin maany iindusstr

16、iaal pllantss.图211.1显示示出了在许许多工业工工厂所见到到的常用的的自动控制制应用。 3：Figg.37.1 iss a ggenerral rrepreesenttatioon off an openn-looop coontrool syystemm . 图图37.11是对开环环控制系统统的一般性性表示。/Thee inpput oor coontrool u(t) iis seelectted bbasedd on the goalls foor thhe syystemm andd alll avaailabble aa priiori knowwledgge abb

17、out the systtem .输入变量量或控制作作用u（ t）是根根据本系统统的目标以以及所有可可获取的先先验知识而而选定的。/Thhe innput is iin noo wayy inffluennced by tthe ooutpuut off thee sysstem ,reppreseentedd by y(t) . 输输入变量绝绝不会受到到y(t) 所表示示的系统输输出变量的的影响。/If unexxpectted ddistuurbannces act uponn an openn-looop syystemm ,orr if its behaaviorr is not co

18、mppleteely uunderrstoood ,tthen the outpput wwill not behaave ppreciiselyy as expeectedd .如果果有不期望望的扰动作作用在开环环系统上，或或者如果其其行为不能能完全掌握握的话，则则该系统的的输出就不不会完全如如预期般动动作。4：Finnallyy ,thhe coomputter iinterrpretts orr unddersttandss whaat thhe immage reprresennts iin teerms of kknowlledgee aboout tthe sscenee andd

19、 givves tthe rrobott a ssymboolic desccripttion of iits eenvirronmeent .最后，计计算机能就就场景的辨辨别，理解解图像所表表示的含义义或作出解解释，并使使机器人用用符号对环环境的描述述。5：Forr eveery pproceess ttheree musst bee finnal aactuaator thatt reggulattes tthe ssupplly off eneergy or mmaterrial to tthe pproceess aand cchangges tthe mmeasuuremeent s

20、signaal . 对每一过过程，均必必须由最终终的控制器器来调节过过程中能量量或材料的的供给量，并并且改变测测量值。/Mosst offten thiss is in ssome kindd of valvve , but it mmightt alsso bee a bbelt or mmotorr speeed ,louvver pposittion ,andd so on .最常见的的是由某种种阀来完成成，但这也也可能是一一条皮带，或或者是马达达速度，口口径位置等等等。6：Forr exaamplee ,maany ttranssduceers hhave variiablee res

21、sistaance whicch muust bbe coonverrted to aa volltagee by a sppeciaal ciircuiit. 举举例来说，许许多传感器器具有电阻阻变换，这这必须由一一专门电路路转换成电电压。/Thiss proocesss of convvertiing tthe ttranssduceer ouutputt intto a volttage signnal wwhichh cann be connnecteed too thee resst off thee sysstem is ccalleed siignall connditiioni

22、nng.这种种将传感器器输出转换换成电压信信号，并与与系统的其其它电路相相连接的过过程，称为为信号调整整。7：Forr neggativve feeedbaack tto exxist ,eitther A orr B mmust be aa neggativve quuantiity tto giive tthe lloop phasse innverssion , annd thhe reeturnn difffereence is aalwayys (11+AB) forr neggativve feeedbaack .为了形成成反馈，AA或B必须须为负量以以使得环路路形成倒向向，因而对

23、对于负反馈馈深度恒等等于（1+ab）.H: 1：Howeever ,thiis addvanttage is mmore thann outtweigghed by tthe ddisaddvanttagess of openn-looop coontrool annd thhe innhereent aadvanntagees off feeedbacck syystemms . 然而，这这一优点比比不上开环环控制的缺缺点和反馈馈系统的固固有优点。/Firrst ,in mmany casees thhe immplemmentaationn of the openn-looop coont

24、rool suuggessted abovve woould requuire a veery ssophiisticcatedd (annd heence expeensivve) ccompuutingg devvice to ddeterrminee thee inpputs requuiredd to counnteraact tthe pprediictedd dissturbbancee efffectss .首先先，在许多多情况下，实实现上面所所提到的开开环控制需需要一台非非常完善的的（因而很很费钱的）计计算装置，一一边用它算算出抵消预预估扰动影影响所需的的输入量。/Seecon

25、dd , aa feeedbacck syystemm turrns oout tto bee inhherenntly far lesss sennsitiive tto thhe acccuraacy wwith whicch a mathhematticall moddel oof thhe syystemm hass beeen deetermminedd.其次，反反馈系统对对数学模型型的精度并并不是很敏敏感。I: 1：If aall eelemeentall equuatioons aare ffor aall ttime ,theen thhe syystemm is a coon

26、tinnuouss timee sysstem . 如果果所有的基基础方程都都定义整个个时间过程程，那么，该该系统也是是连续时间间系统。/If ,as in ssamplling or ddigittal ssysteems ,somee eleementtal eequattionss aree deffinedd or usedd onlly att disscrette poointss in timee ,a disccretee-timme syystemm is the resuult . 而假如如，在采样样问题或数数字系统中中常见这种种情况，有有些基础方方程仅定义义于，或仅仅能应

27、用于于离散的时时间点上，这这就导致了了离散时间间系统。/Conntinuuous-timee sysstem are desccribeed byy difffereentiaal eqquatiion ,disccretee-timme syystemms byy difffereence equaationn.连续时时间系统用用微分方程程描述，而而离散时间间系统则用用于差分方方程描述。2：If all elemmentaal eqquatiions are lineear ,so iis thhe syystemm .如果果所有的基基础方程都都是线性的的，那么该该系统也是是如些。/If o

28、ne or mmore elemmentaal eqquatiions are nonllineaar ,aas iss thee casse foor a diodde ,tthen the overrall systtem iis noonlinnear .如果一一个或多个个基础方程程是非线性性的，例如如在应用二二极管的场场合，那么么整个系统统也就成了了非线性的的的。/Whenn alll eleementtal eequattionss cann be desccribeed byy a sset oof coonstaant pparammeterr vallues ,as in tt

29、he ffamilliar RLC circcuit ,thee sysstem is ssaid to bbe sttatioonaryy or timee-invvariaant oor coonstaant ccoeffficieent .当所有的的基础方程程都能用一一组定常参参数值来描描述，正如如熟知的RRLC电路路的情况，就就称该系统统是稳态的的，或时不不变的，或或常系数的的。/IIf onne orr morre paarameeterss ,orr thee verry foorm oof ellemenntal equaationn ,vaary iin a knowwn fa

30、ashioon wiith ttime ,thee sysstem is ssaid to bbe tiime-vvaryiing .如果有一一个或多个个参数，甚甚至连基础础方程本身身都以一种种已知方式式随时间而而变化，则则此系统就就称为时变变系统。/Finnallyy ,iff theere aare nno exxternnal iinputts annd thhe syystemm behhavioor iss dettermiined entiirelyy by its inittial condditioons ,the systtem iis saaid tto bee hommo

31、genneouss or unfoorcedd . 最最后，如果果没有外部部输入信号号，系统的的行为完全全由自已的的初始条件件确定，该该系统就称称为齐次或或非强迫系系统。/Withh forrcingg funnctioons aactinng ,aa nonnhomoogeneeous systtem mmust be cconsiidereed .有有强迫函数数作用于上上的，则系系统必须作作为非齐次次的来考虑虑。3：In eachh casse ,tthe iinputt cirrcuitt of the ampllifieer caan bee reppreseentedd by an

32、eequivvalennt paassivve immpenddencee Zi defiined as tthe rratioo of Vi/IIi orr admmittaance Yi ,defiined as IIi/vii. 在每每种情况下下，放大器器的输入回回路都可以以用一个等等值无源阻阻抗Zi（ZZi 是vvi与Iii的比值）oor 等值值导纳Yii（Yi是是Ii与VVi比值）来来表示。4：In praccticee ,a RTD may be uused withh as muchh as 500 feett of threee-coonducctor cablle wiith

33、ouut crreatiing aa perrcepttiblee errror .实践中，热热电阻探测测器可使用用至多5000英尺的的三导线电电缆，而不不会产生任任一可察觉觉的误差。5: Inn thee proocesss plaant ,it iis immpraccticaal too loccate the conttrol insttrumeents out in tthe pplacee neaar thhe prrocesss .在在过程工厂厂中，将控控制仪器安安装在室外外靠近过程程的地方是是不现实的的。6：In thiss casse thhe siignall conndi

34、tiioninng seectioon muust cconveert tthe iincomming signnal tto a formm whiich ccan bbe coonneccted direectlyy to the nextt parrt off thee intterfaace ,the inpuut/ouutputt secctionn of the micrrocommputeer ittselff.这种情情况下，信信号调理单单元必须将将输入信号号变换成为为另一信号号，也可直直接与接口口的下一部部分，即微微计算机本本身的输入入输出单元元相连接。7：It is aass

35、ummed iin eaach ccase thatt thee forrwardd-patth ammpliffier of aa neggativve feeedbaack ssysteem iss uniilateeral ,so thatt siggnalss cann passs frrom iinputt or outpput ,but not in tthe rreverrse ddirecctionn froom ouutputt to inpuut ,aand tthe oonly feeddbackk patth iss thrroughh thee nettworkk B

36、。而而有种情况况下，均假假定负反馈馈网络中的的放大器是是单向的。于是信号号只能从输输入端到输输出端，而而不能反方方向传递。于是唯一一的反馈路路径即通过过网络B。8：It is hhopedd thaat thhese willl nott onlly giive tthe rreadeer soome ffamilliariity wwith the proccess of mmodell-buiildinng buut allso ssatissfy hhim tthat lineear ddiffeerenttial equaationns arre ,iin faact ,reasson

37、abble mmodells foor a widee rannge oof reeal ssysteems .希望这些些工作不单单是使读者者熟悉模型型建立的过过程，而且且也使大家家确信，线线性微分方方程是各种种实际系统统的合理模模型。I: 9：It iis ussuallly poossibble tto vaary tthe sset vvaluee in suchh a ssysteem byy mannual adjuustmeent oof a conttrol knobb or by mmeanss of an aauxilliaryy auttomattic ccontrrol

38、ssysteem.通过过手动调节节控制旋钮钮或者用辅辅助的自动动控制系统统可以改变变这个设定定值。10: IIt shhouldd be undeerstoood tthat any diviisionn of conttrol engiineerring intoo “reguulatoors ”,”servvo-meechannismss” andd “proccess-conttrol systtems” is veryy arttificcial and is rreallly duue too hisstoriic raatherr thaat loogicaal reeasonns

39、 , A prrocesss-coontrool syystemms iss oftten aa reggularr .我们们应该了解解到:把控控制工程分分成调节器器、伺服机机构与过程程控制系统统是由人为为因素造成成的，这是是由于历史史上的原因因而不是逻逻辑上的原原因。过程程控制系统统通常是一一个调节器器。/HHowevver ,a coompliicateed prrocesss-coontrool syystemms maay poossibbly ccontaain ddevicces wwhichh couuld bbe deefineed ass serrvo-mmechaanism

40、ms .TThe ffolloowingg aree exaamplees off conntroll prooblemms ussuallly cllassiifiedd as proccess conttrol。然而一个个复杂的过过程控制系系统可能包包含好几个个被称作伺伺服机构的的装置。11：Itts sttandaard rrangee is fromm 4 tto 200mA DDC foor thhe cuurrennt siignall or fromm 1 tto 5VV DC for the volttage signnal .其标准范范围对电流流来说是44-20mmA DCC

41、,对电压压力信号来来说是1-5V DDC。M: 1：Meassuremment mustt be madee to indiicatee thee currrentt vallue oof thhe vaariabble ccontrrolleer byy thee looop . 必须具有有测量环节节，以指示示被测回路路所控制的的变量当前前值。/Commmon mmeasuuremeent uused in iindusstry incllude floww ratte, ppresssure , leevel, temmperaaturee ,annalytticall meaasuree

42、mentt (suuch aas pHH ,ORRP annd coonducctiviity ),andd manny ottherss parrticuular to sspeciial iindusstriees.在工工业中所使使用的常规规测量包括括流量，压压力，物位位，温度，分分析测量参参数，如PPH值，OORP 和和电导率 ，以及许许多其他特特殊工业中中的特殊参参数。2: Moore ppreciiselyy ,itt is apprroximmatelly prroporrtionnal tto thhe prroducct off thee fieeld ddensiity aa

43、nd tthe ccurreent ,somee nonnlineearitty beeing intrroducced bby thhe diistorrtionn of the stattor ffieldd duee to the fluxx genneratted bby thhe arrmatuure ccurreent .Thiss so-callled “armaaturee reaactioon” is keptt smaall bby caarefuully motoor deesignn .更确确切的说,转矩接近近正比于场场强与电流流的乘积。电枢电流流产生的磁磁通使定子子磁

44、场畸变变，所以产产生了某些些非线性，这这叫做“电枢反应应”。在经周周密设计的的典籍中，这这种电枢反反应可以很很小。3：Mosst cllassiical conttrol techhniquues wwere deveelopeed foor liinearr connstannt cooeffiiciennt syystemms wiith oone iinputt andd onee outtput (perrhapss a ffew iinputt andd outtputss) .大大多数经典典控制技术术都是带有有一个输入入、一个输输出（也可可有数个输输入和输出出）的线性性、常系数数系

45、统而发发展起来的的。/TThe llanguuage of cclasssicall tecchniqques is tthe LLaplaace oor z-trannsforrm annd trransffer ffuncttion . 经典典技术的表表达语言室室拉普拉斯斯或者z变变换以及传传递函数。/Whhen nnonliinearritiees annd tiime vvariaationns arre prresennt ,tthe vvery basiic foor thhese classsicaal teechniiquess is remooved .一旦出出现非线性性和时

46、变性性，经典技技术最根本本的基础就就不复存在在了。/Somee succcesssful techhniquues ssuch as pphasee-plaane mmethoods ,desccribiing ffuncttionss ,annd otther ad hhoc mmethoods ,havee beeen deevelooped to aallevviatee thiis shhortccominng . 诸如相平平面方法、描述函数数法和其它它有关方法法这样一些些很成功的的技术能够够得以发展展的原因就就是为了弥弥补这一短短处。/Howeever ,thee greeatess

47、t suuccesss haas beeen llimitted tto loow-orrder systtems . 然而经经典控制理理论的最大大成功也是是局限于低低阶系统中中。/Thee staate vvariaable apprroachh of modeern ccontrrol ttheorry prroviddes aa uniiformm andd powwer-vvaryiing oor coonstaant ccoeffficieents . 现代代控制理论论的状态变变量法提供供了一种统统一、高效效的方法来来描述具有有任意阶次次、线性或或非线性、时变或常常系数的各各种系统。

48、/Itt proovidees ann ideeal fformuulatiion ffor ccompuuter impllemenntatiion aand iis reesponnsiblle foor muuch oof thhe prrogreess iin opptimiizatiion ttheorry .它它也为计算算机处理提提供了一种种理想的表表示方法，并并引起了许许多方面最最优化理论论的进展。4：Mosst prractiical circcuitss mayy be classsed as llineaar .TThereeforee ,a studdy innto tt

49、he ppropeertiees annd annalyssis oof liinearr cirrcuitts iss of bothh theeoretticall andd apppliedd intteresst.大多多数实际电电路可归类类为线性电电路。因此此，对线性性电路性能能和线性电电路分析的的研究就具具有理论和和实践的双双重意义。N: 1:Negaativee feeedbacck allso iincreeasess thee freequenncy bbandwwidthh of the ampllifieer too whiich iit iss apppliedd , b

50、becauuse tthe ggainbbandwwidthh prooductt of a liinearr ampplifiier iis a consstantt , aand nnegattive feeddbackk redducess thee efffectiive ggain. 由于线线性放大器器的增益带带宽积是个个常数，而而负反馈的的运用减小小了有效增增益，因此此，负反馈馈还能拓宽宽运用了负负反馈的放放大器的頻頻带宽度。2: Neegatiive ffeedbback occuurs wwhen a poortioon off thee outtput signnal oof

51、 ann ampplifiier iis feed baack aand ssubtrracteed frrom tthe iinputt siggnal, cauusingg a rreducctionn in the effeectivve innput signnal. 所谓负反反馈是指输输出信号的的一部分被被送回输入入端，与输输入信号相相减，从而而削弱了有有效输入信信号，/The mostt impportaant eeffecct off thiis iss to makee thee oveeralll ampplifiier ggain almoost iimmunne too

52、chaangess in the ampllifieer unnit ggain, andd deppendeent aalmosst enntireely oon thhe feeedbaack nnetwoork ccompoonentts.负反反馈的最重重要作用在在于使放大大器总增益益不至于因因基本放大大器增益的的改变而变变化，其总总增益的大大小完全取取决于反馈馈网络的元元件参数。3: Noow ,aanothher ttype of eelecttricaal siignall ,whhich is bbecomming commmon , is the digiital or ddi

53、scrrete signnal .当今，另另一种电信信号形式变变得越来越越常用，就就是数字或或者是离散散信号。O: 1：One addiitionnal ddistiinctiion nnot sshownn in Fig.38.11 couuld bbe maade bbetweeen llargee-scaale ssysteem annd smmall-scalle syystemm . 图图38.11中没有表表示出来的的另一种分分类是大规规模系统与与小规模系系统。/The degrree oof diifficcultyy in anallysiss varries greaatly

54、amonng thhese systtem cclasssificcatioon . 不同系统统类型，对对其进行分分析难度相相差很大。 /TThesee difffereencess havve mootivaated diffferennt meethodds off appproacch . 这些差别别已经促进进了不同的的方法的发发展。/Modeern ccontrrol ttheorry prroviddes oone oof thhe moost ggenerral aapprooachees .现现代控制理理论提供了了一种最一一般性的方方法。2：Onee of the condduc

55、toors iis coommonn to bothh siddes oof thhe brridgee whiile tthe ootherr twoo connnectt onee to eachh sidde off thee briidge . 三导导线中，其其中一根对对电桥两臂臂是相同的的，而其它它两根连在在电桥的两两臂上。/Anyy chaange in ccablee temmperaaturee willl bee canncellled aas booth ssidess of the briddge aare cchangged aa likke ammountt .由于于

56、两桥臂的的变化是一一样的，所所以电缆上上的任何温温度变化就就会被抵消消。3：Opeeratiionall ampplifiiers withh verry hiigh ggainss aree reaadilyy avaailabble , makking the appllicattion of nnegattive feeddbackk on a laarge scalle prractiical and inexxpenssive. 高增增益的运算算放大器是是容易得到到的，这便便使负反馈馈的使用现现实而经济济。4：Outtput inteerfacce taake aa simmilar

57、r forrm (FFig.118.2) ,thhe obbviouus diifferrencee beiing tthat heree thee floow off infformaationn is in tthe ooppossite direectioon. iit iss passsed fromm thee proogramm to the outsside worlld .输输出接口采采用相似的的形式（图图18.22）,明显显的差别在在于信息流流的方向相相反，是从从程序到外外部世界。S: 1：Seveeral facttors provvidedd thee stiimuluu

58、s foor thhe deeveloopmennt off moddern conttrol theoory :(1)TThe nnecesssityy of dealling withh morre reealisstic modeels oof syystemms .(2)Thhe shhift in eemphaasis towaards optiimal conttrol and optiimal systtem ddesiggn .(3)Thhe coontinnuingg devveloppmentts inn diggitall commputeer teechnoologyy

59、 .(44)Thee shoortcoominggs off preeviouus appproaachess .(55)A rrecoggnitiion oof thhe apppliccabillity of wwell-knoww metthodss in otheer fiieldss of knowwledgge .有有几个因素素激励了现现代控制理理论的发展展：(1)处理更加加真实的系系统模型的的必要性.(2)研研究重点朝朝向最优控控制和最有有系统设计计的转移.(3)数数字计算机机技术的不不断发展 (4)原原有方法的的短缺.(5)对于于将熟知方方法在其它它知识领域域中应用的的广泛认同

60、同2Shoould therre bee an uncoompennsateed vaariattion in tthe rreferrencee junnctioon teemperraturre ,ttheree willl bee a ccorreesponndingg chaange in mmilliivoltt witth a resuultannt errror in ttempeeratuure mmeasuuremeent .例如参考考端温度的的变化没被被补偿，就就会有相应应的毫伏电电压变化，结结果会导致致温度测量量的误差。3：Simmple put ,robbot hhan