比较会计欧洲15课件

1、第三章 比较会计:欧洲 Comparative Accounting: Europe 第1页，共65页。1会计准则与会计实务的关系会计准则与会计实务经常发生背离现象。主要原因在于：许多国家对违背会计准则行为的处罚很轻微；公司可以自愿披露超过准则规范的信息；一些国家许可公司在报告会计信息时悖离准则，如果这样做能够更好地反映公司的经营成果和财务状况。一些国家仅仅要求个别公司运用会计准则而不要求合并报表遵循会计准则。第2页，共65页。2第二章分析了普通法和成文法国家中会计模式的差异。这种差异对会计准则制订的影响表现为：在普通法国家中，会计准则多由民间机构制定，准则及其制订过程较多受到公允表达理念的影

2、响；在成文法体系国家中，其会计准则多是由立法机构或政府部门制订，准则制订过程首先关注会计信息对法律规定的执行和遵守。第3页，共65页。3会计准则是规范财务报表的法规或规则。会计准则的制定过程实质上是影响会计准则的各方面社会力量协调过程。 会计准则与会计实务的关系十分复杂，而且不是一成不变的。在某些情况下，实务来源于准则的规范和指导，而在另外一些情况下，准则来源于对实务的总结和归纳。一旦准则制定之后，实务与准则之间也会经常产生差异。影响差异产生的原因图示如下： 第4页，共65页。4在财务报告中，最关键的区别是会计被定位于对财务状况和经营成果的“公允”反映还是对法律要求的遵循资本主要来自于分散的股

3、东微观基础公允反映强调自律和职业判断成文法体系宏观统一强调会计报表和财务报告的守法合规 服务于国家经济发展普通法体系资本主要来自于银行和政府第5页，共65页。5本章选取法国、德国、捷克、荷兰、英国5个欧洲国家，分析比较这些国家会计模式的差别。5个国家中的法国、德国、荷兰是欧共体（欧盟前身）1957年建立时的成员国，英国于1973年加入欧共体；这4个国家的会计职业组织都是IASC的创建者。捷克原先是前苏联会计模式的代表，体现了计划经济向市场经济转化的特征；捷克于2004年加入欧盟。第6页，共65页。6 France France is the worlds leading advocate of

4、 national uniform accounting.The mandatory use of the national uniform chart of accounts does not burden French businesses because the plan is widely accepted in practice.A feature of French accounting is the dichotomy between individual company financial statements and those for the consolidated gr

5、oup.第7页，共65页。7The Plan Comptable Gnral（national accounting code）provides:Objectives and principles of financial accounting and reporting；Definitions of assets，liabilities，shareholders equity，revenues，and expenses；Recognition and valuation rules；A standardized chart of accounts，requirements for its u

6、se，and other bookkeeping requirements。Model financial statements and rules for their presentation。第8页，共65页。8Even though individual company accounts must follow statutory reporting requirements，the law allows French companies to follow IFRs. The main reason for this flexibility is that when the EU Se

7、venth Directive was implemented in 1986.第9页，共65页。9Financial ReportingFrench companies must report the following:Balance sheetIncome statementNotes to financial statementsDirectors reportAuditors report第10页，共65页。10To give a true and fair view，financial statements must be prepared in compliance with l

8、egislation and in good faith. A significant feature of French reporting is the requirement for extensive and detailed footnote disclosures。French law also contains provisions aimed at preventing bankruptcies.The idea is that companies with a good understanding of their internal financial affairs and

9、 that prepare sound projections can better avoid financial difficulties. 第11页，共65页。11Accordingly，larger companies (those with net sales in excess of 18 million or more than 300 employees) prepare four documents: a statement of cash position，a statement of changes in financial position or cash flow s

10、tatement，a forecast income statement，and a business plan. A social report also is required of all companies with 300 or more employees.第12页，共65页。12Accounting Measurements(p.59)French accounting is characterized by a duality: individual companies must follow fixed regulations while consolidated group

11、s have more flexibility. Accounting for individual companies is the legal basis for distributing dividends and for calculating taxable income.第13页，共65页。13法国会计的特征 强调会计信息的处理过程与税法税则保持一致(形式重于实质） 实行统一的会计制度 积极推广社会责任会计高度稳健通过企业会计与合并会计的脱钩来解决国际惯例与国家特色的矛盾。 第14页，共65页。14Germany The German accounting environment

12、has changed continuously and remarkably since the end of world War . At that time， business accounting emphasized national and sectional charts of account (as in France). In a major turn of events， the 1965 Corporation Law moved the German financial reporting system toward British-American ideas.第15

13、页，共65页。15Two new laws were passed in 1998. The first added a new paragraph in the third book of the German Commercial Code allowing companies that issue equity or debt on organized capital markets to use internationally accepted accounting principles in their consolidated financial statement. The se

14、cond allowed the establishment of a private-sector organization to set accounting standards for consolidated financial statements.第16页，共65页。16Three characteristic of German accountingCreditor protection is a fundamental concern of German accounting as embodied in the Commercial code. Conservative ba

15、lance sheet valuations are central to creditor protection. This creates a tendency to undervalue assets and overvalue liabilities. Reserves are seen as protection against unforeseen risk and possible insolvency.German accounting is designed to compute a prudent income amount that leaves creditors un

16、harmed after distributions are made to owners.第17页，共65页。17The second fundamental characteristic of German accounting is Tax law also largely determines commercial accounting. The determination principle states that taxable income is determined by whatever is booked in a firms financial records. The

17、dominance of tax accounting means that no distinction is made between financial statements prepared for tax purposes and those published in financial reports.第18页，共65页。18The third fundamental characteristic of German accounting is its reliance on statutes and court decisions. Nothing else has any bi

18、nding or authoritative status. To understand German accounting， one must look to both HGB (German Commercial Code) and a considerable body of case law.第19页，共65页。19Accounting Regulation and EnforcementBefore 1998 Germany had no financial accounting standard-setting function， as it is understood in En

19、glish-speaking countries. The German Institute provided consultation in various processes of lawmaking that affected accounting and financial reporting.Similar consultation was given by the Frankfurt Stock Exchange，German trade unions，and accounting academics.第20页，共65页。20The 1998 law on control and

20、transparency introduced the requirements for the Ministry of Justice to recognize a private national standard-setting body to serve the following objectives:Develop recommendations for the application of accounting standards for consolidated financial statements.Advise the Ministry of Justice on new

21、 accounting legislation.Represent Germany in international accounting organization such as the IASB第21页，共65页。21The German Accounting Standards Committee(GASC) was founded shortly thereafter，and duly recognized by the Ministry of Justice as the German standard-setting authority.The GASC oversees the

22、German Accounting Standard Board， which does the technical work and issues the accounting standards. The GASB is made up of seven independent experts with a background in auditing，financial analysis，academia，and industry.第22页，共65页。22It is important to emphasize that GASB standards are authoritative

23、recommendations that only apply to consolidated financial statements.The German auditing profession is small.Two classes of auditors are legally sanctioned to conduct independent audit examinations of companies. 第23页，共65页。23Financial ReportingThe 1985 accounting Act specifies different accounting，au

24、diting，and financial reporting requirements according to company size，not according to the form of business organization. There are three size: classes-small，medium，and large- defined in terms of balance sheet totals，annual sales totals，and numbers of employees.Companies with publicly traded securit

25、ies are always classified as large.第24页，共65页。24The 1985 Accounting Act specifies the content and format of financial statements， which include the following:Balance sheetIncome statementNotesManagement reportAuditors report第25页，共65页。25Small companies are exempt from the audit requirement and may pre

26、pare an abbreviated balance sheet. Small and medium-sized companies may prepare abbreviated income statements， and fewer disclosure requirements for their notes as well.第26页，共65页。26A feature of the German financial reporting system is a private report by the auditors to a companys managing board of

27、directors and supervisory board. This report comments on the companys future prospects and，especially，factors that may threaten its survival.This report can run several hundred pages for large German companies. But it is private information， not available to shareholders.第27页，共65页。27Accounting Measu

28、rements(p.64)Because of Conservative idea，provisions as estimates of future expenses or losses are used heavily.Provisions must be set up for deferred maintenance expenses，product guarantees，potential losses from pending transactions，and other uncertain liabilities.第28页，共65页。28Most companies make pr

29、ovisions as large as possible because legally booked expenses directly affect the determination of taxable income.Provisions give German companies many opportunities to smooth income.第29页，共65页。29德国会计的特征经济政策法制化通过政治法律制度制约和调节市场经济运行，影响会计选择。 税法和税则对企业会计有重要影响，各纳税主体必须符合税法的要求。 企业可以根据法律的许可提取大量的准备。德国财务报表披露的会计信

30、息非常稳健，能够在相当程度上抗衡和化解市场经济中的风险，从而有效地保护企业的经济实力。 第30页，共65页。30 Czech Republic (CR) 自20世纪起，捷克的会计模式经历了多次导向性变革。二战之前，捷克会计原则深受欧洲德语系国家影响。在二战之后，捷克作为东欧社会主义阵营的成员，其会计规范转向苏联统一会计模式。而1989年以后，捷克开始由计划经济向市场经济转型，其会计规范也发生了重大转变。1991年捷克议会通过了会计法，该法案在很大程度上遵循了欧盟第四号和第七号指令，并借鉴了国际会计准则的相关规定。 第31页，共65页。31As a centrally planned econo

31、my was being constructed， Czech accounting practice was based on the soviet model. The administrative needs of various central government institutions were satisfied through such features as a uniform chart of accounts，detailed accounting methods，and uniform financial statements，obligatory for all e

32、nterprises.第32页，共65页。32After 1989 Czech moved quickly toward a market-oriented economy， relatively accounting turned westward，reflecting the principles embodied in the European Union Directives.第33页，共65页。33Accounting regulation and enforcementThe new Commercial Code was enacted by Parliament in 1991

33、 and became effective on January 1，1992. This legislation includes requirements for annual financial statements，income taxes， audits，and shareholdersmeetings.The Accountancy Act that sets out the requirements for accounting was passed in 1991 and became effective on January 1，1993. 第34页，共65页。341991年

34、会计法强调运用账户表（欧盟为了保持各国会计信息的可比性而制定）进行会计记录和编制报表，并引入了“真实与公允”和“实质重于形式”原则。但由于当时的捷克会计实务界习惯于计划经济体制下会计模式，财务信息需求主体也未真正形成，一系列会计改革措施在实务中并未得到很好的运用。随着捷克加入欧盟的步伐加快及1991 年会计法日益显露出来的不足， 捷克共和国于2000 年起对会计法重新进行修订并于2002 年1 月1 日开始实行修订后的会计法。 第35页，共65页。35The Accountancy Act was significantly amended with effect from January 1

35、，2002， primarily to bring Czech accounting closer to IAS/IFRs.The Ministry of Finance is responsible for accounting principles. Ministry of Finance decrees set out acceptable measurement and disclosure practices that companies must follow.Thus，accounting in the CR is influenced by the Commercial Cod

36、e，the Accountancy Act，and Ministry of Finance decrees.第36页，共65页。36Auditing is regulated by the Act on Auditors，passed in 1992. This act established the Chamber of Auditors，a self-regulated professional body that oversees the registration，education， examination，and disciplining of auditors，the settin

37、g of auditing standards，and the regulation of audit practice，such as the format of the audit report.第37页，共65页。37The audit is designed to ensure that the accounts have been kept according to applicable legislation and decrees and that the financial statements present a true and fair view of the compa

38、nys financial position and results.第38页，共65页。38Financial ReportingFinancial statements must be consisting of:Balance sheetProfit and loss account (income statement)Notes (include a cash flow statement)Czech companies have the option of using IAS/IFRS or Czech accounting standards in preparing the th

39、eir consolidated financial statements. However，listed Czech companies are required to prepare audited financial statements according to IAS/IFRS.第39页，共65页。39Accounting Measurements(p.68)Goodwill arising from a business combination is written off in the first year of consolidation or capitalized and

40、amortized over no more than 20 years.Leased assets are typically not capitalized-an example of form over substance.Legal reserves are required: Profits are appropriated annually until they reach 20% of equity for corporations and 10% for limited liability companies.第40页，共65页。40捷克的会计规范改革进程是不断向国际会计准则靠

41、拢并以其为最终目标的过程， 该进程中较少保留捷克的本土特色。这是由于捷克的筹资渠道、与欧洲大陆政治、经济的密切联系等因素不断作用的结果，同时也是由于捷克在历史传统上就没有太多自己的特色， 其大多数时间都是融于欧洲大陆模式，特别是德语国家模式之中。并且，捷克会计国际化也是由于欧盟会计国际化进程加快这一外在因素推动所致。 第41页，共65页。41The NetherlandsDutch accounting presents several interesting paradoxes as follow:The Dutch have relatively permissive statutory

42、accounting and financial reporting requirements but very high professional practice standards. The Netherlands is a code law country， yet accounting is oriented toward fair presentation. Financial reporting and tax accounting are two separate activities. Furthermore， the fairness orientation develop

43、ed without a strong stock market influence.第42页，共65页。42Accounting in the Netherlands is considered a branch of business economics. As a result，much economic thought has been devoted to accounting topics and especially to accounting measurements.Highly respected professional accountants are often par

44、t-time professors. Thus，academic thought has a major influence upon ongoing practice.第43页，共65页。43Dutch accountants are also will to consider foreign ideas. The Netherlands is also home to several of largest multinational enterprises in the world. These large multinationals have influenced financial

45、reporting of other Dutch companies.第44页，共65页。44Accounting Regulation and EnforcementAccounting regulations in the Netherlands remained liberal until 1970，when the Act on Annual Financial Statements was enacted. Among the major provisions of the 1970 act on the P.55.第45页，共65页。45The council for Annual

46、 Reporting issues guidelines on generally acceptable accounting principles. The council is a private organization and is financed by grant from the business community and NIvRA. Even though the councils guidelines do not have the force of law， they are followed by most large companies and auditors.第

47、46页，共65页。46荷兰年报条例（the Act on Annual Accounts Statements）对荷兰企业的财务报告制定了基本的法律要求，适用于荷兰的所有企业，包括上市公司和非上市公司。条例主要包括三部分内容：一般要求、披露要求和关于“企业庭”（the Enterprise Chamber）的规则。“企业庭”是阿姆特丹法院特高下设的一个法庭，专门负责解决公司和与其财务报告有利害关系的各方出现的争端。第47页，共65页。47根据年报条例，与某公司财务报告有直接利害关系的个人和组织，在该公司财务报告公布日或批准日之后两个月内可以就该公司财务报告的虚假和失误等问题向企业庭提出控告。C

48、hamber decisions may lead to modifications of financial statements or various penalties. Even thought the rulings apply only to defendant companies， they sometimes state general rule that may influence the reporting practices of other companies. 第48页，共65页。48Auditing in the Netherlands is a self-regu

49、lated profession. Its governing body is the Netherlands Institute of Register-accountants (NIvRA)， which has approximately 13000 members. It is fully autonomous in setting auditing standards and its strong professional code of conduct has statutory status.第49页，共65页。49Financial ReportingThe quality o

50、f Dutch financial reporting is uniformly high. Statutory financial statements should be filed in Dutch，but English，French，and German are also acceptable. The financial statements must include the following:Balance sheetIncome statementNotesDirectorsreportOther prescribed information第50页，共65页。50A cas

51、h flow statement is not required，but is recommended by a council guideline，and most Dutch companies provide one.Small companies are exempt from the requirements for an audit，and they may file an abbreviated income statement and balance sheet.第51页，共65页。51Medium-sized companies must be audited，but may

52、 publish a condensed income statement. Small，Medium-sized，and large companies are defined in the civil code.Dutch companies are permitted to prepare financial statements using IFRS or U.S. GAAP instead of Dutch accounting standards.第52页，共65页。52Accounting Measurements(p.72)The Dutch flexibility towar

53、d accounting measurements may be most evident in permitting the use of current values for tangible assets.Because Dutch companies have flexibility in applying measurement rules，one would suspect that there are opportunities for income smoothing.In addition，certain items can bypass the income stateme

54、nt through direct adjustment to reserves in shareholdersequity.第53页，共65页。53荷兰会计的特征1.荷兰的财务会计与税务会计截然分开，税法对财务报告的影响不大。2. 荷兰是唯一设置会计法庭的国家。隶属于会计法庭的商会可就报表争议对企业采取法律行为。3荷兰会计的重要特征是极端的自由选择与高度的职业标准相结合。第54页，共65页。54United KingdomAccounting in the United Kingdom developed as an independent discipline， pragmatically

55、 responding to the needs and practices of business. Over time，successive companies laws added structure and other requirements，but still allowed accountants considerable flexibility in the application of professional judgment.第55页，共65页。55Since the 1970s the most important source of development in co

56、mpany law has been the EU Directives，most notably the 4th and 7th. At the same time，accounting standards and the standard-setting process have become more authoritative.The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to develop an accountancy profession.The concept of a fair presentation of financial results and position (the true and fair view) is also of British origin.第56页，共65页。56Accounting Regulation and Enforcement英国会计准则的制定经历了三个