举例、列举、分类课件(2)

1、How to organize one paragraph?1. topic sentence2. supporting sentences3. concluding sentence/closing sentenceHave a brief review例证法/举例法(example)列举法(details)分类法(development by classification)How to develop paragraphs?因果分析法(cause and effect)对比-对照法(comparison and contrast)Objectives:1. 例证法/举例法 举例法是段落扩展

2、最常用的方法，几乎所有的“主题”都可以用举例法来论证。因此， 举例法也经常与其他段落扩展方法同时使用。它主要是通过举例、列举事实来说明主题，从而使文章显得言之有物，具有说服力。 例如 It Pays to Be Honest 一文第2段 However, there are lots of people who try to get benefits by dishonest means. For example, many students copy the papers written by others or cheat at examinations in order to get h

3、igher marks. The same thing may be said of some producers who try to get rich by making fake and poor products. Those people may succeed for a time, but sooner or later, they will get nothing but troubles. 其中信号词 For example 和 The same thing may be said of 提示本段举了两个例子(学生和生产商)来说明主题句 there are lots of p

4、eople who try to get benefits by dishonest means。Useful expressions:1. 获得利益2. 采取不正当手段3. 抄袭别人试卷4. 考试作弊5. 同样的事情也适用于6. 制造假冒伪劣产品get/ gain benefitsby dishonest meanscopy papers written by otherscheat at examinationsthe same thing may be said of+N/N-Phrasemake fake and poor products 例证法/举例法（tips） 采用举例法扩展段

5、落，最关键的问题是如何选择典型的例证。学生作文中普遍存在的问题，就是不会选取恰当的例证。一般作文命题都是关于日常生活或人们普遍关心的社会问题，学生应该多观察生活，多思考一些普遍的社会问题，这样在选取例证时，就可以信手拈来，而不会抓耳挠腮，觉得无例可用。 下面语段的选例就十分精当。 Women can work as well as men in many fields. For example, many female scientists have greatly contributed to the development of human civilization. Most impor

6、tant of all, they have made such achievements while working as wives and mothers. In this case, they are more successful and respectable because they have to take on too much pressure in society and in family. 上述“主题句”指出，妇女在许多领域可以做得跟男人一样好。要论证这一观点，最有说服力的方法就是选取典型例证。本段选择了女科学家作为典型代表，而且进一步指出，她们取得与男科学家同样的成

7、就是要付出更大的代价的。 例证法也是运用客观事实、统计数字、实验结果、图表等作论据证明论点的一种论证方法。具体地说，它通过对一些个别事例的分析和研究，归纳它们的共同属性，综合它们的共同本质和规律，从而得出一个带有普遍性的结论。尽量找最能体现观点的例子，具体点，微观点，给人说服力。 吸烟的弊端 There is little doubt that smoking tobacco is extremely harmful to the smokers health. In the US, for example, research by the American Cancer Society su

8、ggests that tobacco causes up to 400,000 deaths each year - more than AIDS, alcohol, drug abuse, car crashes, murders, suicides, and fires combined. （毫无疑问，吸烟对吸烟者的健康构成严重威胁。例如，在美国，美国癌症协会的研究显示，烟草每年导致的死亡高达400，000-比艾滋病、酗酒、滥用药物、车祸、谋杀、自杀和火灾造成的死亡人数还多。）统计数字禁烟 To start with, smoking endangers peoples health.

9、As we all know, tobacco contains many toxic substances such as nicotine and tar. That is to say, if you are a heavy smoker, you are more likely to suffer from chronic diseases. For example, you may cough, have a sore throat or experience eye irritation. Medical research has already proved that smoki

10、ng may cause some respiratory problems. 实验结果 To be more precise, smokers may develop lung cancer. Statistics show that the incidence of smoking-related conditions has increased sharply over the past five years.（首先，吸烟危害人们健康。正如我们所知，烟草中含有许多有毒物质，如尼古丁和焦油。也就是说，如果你是个烟鬼，你更可能患上一些慢性疾病。例如，你可能会咳嗽，咽喉肿痛或者眼睛不适。医学研

11、究已经证实，吸烟容易导致一些呼吸道疾病。说得具体一些，吸烟者可能得肺癌。数据表明，在过去五年里，与吸烟相关的疾病发病率急剧上升。）1. 首先2. 正如我们所知3. 有毒物质4. 尼古丁5. 焦油6. 也就是说7. 患上慢性疾病8. 咽喉肿痛9. 眼睛不适10. 导致呼吸道疾病11.说得具体一些12. 得肺癌To begin withAs we all knowtoxic substancesnicotinetarThat is to saysuffer from chronic diseaseshave a sore throatexperience eye irritationcause r

12、espiratory diseasesTo be more precisedevelop lung cancer表例证的一些常用表达1.for instance, for example, to illustrate, as an illustration（例如）2.for another instance（又如）3. A case in point is, 是个例子。4.A good example of this is非常好的一个例子是5.There is evidence that; It is reported that拓展段落的一些常用表达1. in other words换言之2.

13、that is to say也就是说3.to be more precise说的具体一些For example 和such as 的使用For example ，一般是用一个句子作例子， 而such as 是并列两个以上名词或动名词短语作例子。如：1. I have many hobbies. For example, I like playing badminton very much.2.I have many hobbies such as playing badminton, collecting stamps and going camping.3.I have such hobbi

14、es as playing badminton and collecting stamps.Such as 可以跟在一个“总体名词” （如句2中的hobbies ）之后，并列几个实例（如句2），也可以将“总体名词”夹在suchas 中间，然后再并列几个例子（如句3）。2. 列举法 运用列举法，是通过列举一系列论据对topic sentence中摆出论点进行广泛、全面地陈述或解释。用列举法发展段落时，主题句常包含表示数量的词，如：several, many, some, four 等。列举细节时，可以根据各种内容的相对重要性，按一定的逻辑顺序排列。 Social activities benef

15、it us in many ways. To begin with, these activities can widen our knowledge, because we can learn what we cant from our books. Second, these activities can serve as a bridge between theory and practice, because we can learn how to put our book knowledge into practice. Lastly, these activities can en

16、rich our experience, in that we can get to know the society well so that we can adapt to it easily when we graduate.本段的第一句是段落主题句，in many ways在这里为下面的列举作好了铺垫。作者用了to begin with, second和lastly作为连接语，条理清楚地列举了社会活动有益的三个方面。举例法与列举法区别 举例法（example）是通过举出具体事例来阐述、说明主题句内容，严格地讲，举例法也是列举法一种，它们区别在于：列举法侧重罗列事实，所列事实力求全面；而

17、举例法侧重通过举出典型事例来解释作者观点，且事例可多可少。我们来看下面这个用举例法展开段落。作者运用列举法，是通过列举一系列论据对topic sentence中摆出论点进行广泛、全面地陈述或解释，列举顺序可以按照所列各点内容相对重要性、时间、空间等进行。列举常用的表达方法有: first, second, in the first place, first of all, to begin with, in the second place, next, also, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition, what is more, beyon

18、d that, for one thing, for another, finally. 返回 分类法是将事物按照一定的标准、原则进行归类，然后再分别进行说明、解释。这种方法会使看似复杂的内容变得简单有序。: 3. 分类法（developmentbyclassification）例 As far as political views are concerned, people fall into three categories. First are the conservative people. Conservatives are opposed to sudden or great ch

19、anges. Second are the liberal people. These people are in favor of progress and reform. But their opinions often seem too idealistic. Third are the moderate people. The moderates keep everything within reasonable limits. They are more practical in this hard world. In my opinion, most people seem to

20、belong to this group.本段把人按政治观点分为三类:保守派(conservative people)、自由派(liberal people)和温和派(moderate people),并对他们各自的特征进行了简要的分析。 因果分析是常用的拓展段落的方法之一，一定要注意推理的逻辑性, 因果关系必须表达清楚，不能因果混淆，更不能因果倒置，要避免牵强附会和循环论证。4. 因果分析法(cause and effect )E.g.1: The role of women in todays society is changing. One reason is that women ha

21、ve begun to assert themselves as independent people through the womens movement. Also, women are aware of the alternatives to staying at home. Another reason is that increasing numbers of women who enter new fields and interests serve as role models for other women. Moreover, men are becoming more c

22、onscious of the abilities of women and have begun to view their independence positively.4. 因果分析法(cause and effect )assert that/ sth to be/oneself as 宣称，坚持（某种观点/主张）alternatives to doing 做.可行的替代方案serve as (a) role model(s) for 成为的榜样becoming more conscious of 越来越意识到ExerciseDirections：Read the following

23、 paragraph of cause and effect，adding suitable listing signals and linking expressionsThere are many reasons why languages change. _ , various languages that started from the same parent developed their own uniqueness after groups of speakers drifted away(渐渐离开/疏远) from one another to establish isola

24、ted, independent communities. _, the independence of and interaction with foreign cultures, often as a result of military conquest, also contribute to language changes. _is the rapidly advancing technology and new systems of communication that bring all cultures and languages into close contact 使产生密

25、切联系, with borrowing words, between languages, for a common phenomenon in the contemporary world. All languages change as the experiences of their speakers change.For one reasonMoreoverAnother reason比较（comparison）主要是指出两个或两个以上不同种类的事物的共同点或相似之处，如人物、地点、事物、思想、观点等。对照（contrast）主要是指出它们的不同点。相同的或类似的特征可以组成比较，不同的特征则可以组成对照。不仅如此，比较和对比常常同时使用，这是因为比较中往往隐含着对比。4. 比较-对照法（comparison and contrast）E.g.1: Life in the