《心理语言学》课件：CH5 SentenceProcessing 2

1、CH5 Sentence ProcessingContentsSentence and SyntaxSemantic and Lexical-based GrammarsMethods in Sentence Processing Research Immediate Processing of SentencesWorking memory and Sentence ComprehensionFactors That Influence Sentence ComprehensionHow people compose the meanings of sentences from indivi

2、dual words?The government has other agencies and instruments for pursuing these other objectivesTraditional theories assume that sentence processing is algorithmic and that meaning is derived compositionallyMeaning as PropositionsPropositionsA set of conceptual nodes connected by labeled pathways th

3、at expresses the meaning of a sentenceA mouse bit a catorA cat was bitten by a mouseDeriving PropositionsChildren who are slow eat bread that is coldSlow childrenChildren eat breadBread is coldEvidence for PropositionsMemory better for sentences with fewer propositionsStructural/ lexical ambiguityFi

4、nd at least 5 meanings of this sentence:I made her duck.I cooked waterfowl for her benefit (to eat)I cooked waterfowl belonging to herI created the (plaster?) duck she ownsI caused her to quickly lower her head or bodyI waved my magic wand and turned her into undifferentiated waterfowlParsing is the

5、 process of assigning elements of surface structure to linguistic categories. Because of limitations in processing resources, we begin to parse sentences as we see or hear each word in a sentence.We use syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic knowledge to comprehend sentences. An ongoing debate is whethe

6、r we use these forms of knowledge simultaneously or whether we process syntactic information first.10Comprehending a sentence involves attention to syntactic, semantic and pragmatic factors.What part does each factor play?Do we use our syntactic semantic, and pragmatic knowledge simultaneously when

7、we comprehend a sentence?Or do certain factors take priority at various states of the comprehension process?What kinds of cognitive processes are involved when a sentence, unlike this simple declarative one, is complex enough to be a burden for working memory?Sentence and SyntaxThe Role of Syntax in

8、 Sentence Understandingwe need to establish the syntactic structure of the sentence, which tells us who did what to whom and when sometimes this is ambiguous The spy saw the man with the binoculars. but meaning can resolve this ambiguity The bird saw the man with the binoculars.The “Syntax-first” ap

9、proach to parsing meaning is not considered until parsing is completedComputational languageSyntax-based computational languageSentence structure: syntaxContext free grammarsPhrase Structure rulesParsing with phrase structure grammarsSentence structureUnits of the sentence are constituentsConstituen

10、t: a group of words treated as a single unitMinimum constituent is the wordStructure of the sentence: syntaxStructure of sentences: syntaxwhat is syntax?“characterizing the relation between semantic predicate-argument relations and the superficial word and phrase configurations by which a language e

11、xpresses them” (Kaplan 2003)Structure of sentences: syntax(a)John saw Mary syntactic level(b)saw (John1, Mary2)semantic level(c)Mary was seen by John syntactic level(d)Mary sent John books syntactic level(e)sent (Mary1, John2, books3)semantic level(f)saw: 1 = agent, 2 = patient(g)sent: 1 = agent, 2

12、= goal, 3 = patientStructure of sentences: syntax MaxmetJane Max gave Jane bananasStructure of sentences: syntaxN VN MaxmetJaneNVN N Max gave Jane bananasStructure of sentences: syntaxThe boys watched the gameStructure of sentences: syntaxThe boys watched the game Structure of sentences: syntaxThe b

13、oys watched the game The boys from Brazil watched an interesting game on TVStructure of sentences: syntaxThe boys watched the game The boys from Brazil watched an interesting game on TV Structure of sentences: syntaxThe boys watched the game The boys from Brazill watched an interesting game on TV My

14、 mother sent Mary a recipeStructure of sentences: syntaxThe boys watched the game The boys from Brazill watched an interesting game on TV My mother sent Mary a recipe Structure of sentences: syntaxThe boys watched the game The boys from Brazill watched an interesting game on TV My mother sent a reci

15、pe to Mary My mother in London sent my sister the wrong recipe Structure of sentences: syntaxNP V NPThe boys watched the game NP V NPThe boys from Brazil watched an interesting game on TV NP V NP NPMy mother sent Mary a recipe NP V NP NPMy mother in London sent my sister the wrong recipeContext Free

16、 GrammarsTaking linear strings as inputProducing non-linear hierarchical data structures (graphs) as outputsAssumption: sentences have a constituent structureHierarchical structureMy mother likes her catsHierarchical structureMy mother likes her catsHierarchical structureMy mother likes her catsHier

17、archical structureMy mother likes her catsHierarchical structureMy mother likes her catsContext Free GrammarsPhrase structure rulesItem(s) to right of arrow is an ordered list of symbolsItem to left is a generalization over this listStart symbolRules unorderedContext Free GrammarsPhrase structure ru

18、lesThe student enjoys mathsThe birds sangThe relatives of my husband live in ChicagoThe student drove his car into the treeContext Free GrammarsFormal languageSet of strings derivable from designated start symbol SStrings are grammatical sentencesContext Free GrammarsFour parametersSet of non-termin

19、al symbols or variablesSet of terminal symbols (found in lexicon)Set of phrase structure rulesDesignated start symbolComputable grammarsThe evaluation of a grammar:Its ability to capture significant generalizations within the specific grammar of a given language, and across the grammars of different

20、 languagesContext Free Grammars / Phrase Structure Grammars (PSG)Historical notePopularised by ChomskyChomskys Transformational GrammarFamous computable example: Generalised Phrase Structure Grammar (Gazdar et al.)Sentence parsingrecognize / accept a sentencegenerate sentencesparsing: assign correct

21、 structure to a sentencei.e. match a sentence to the correct parse tree of the number of parse trees generated by a grammar Sentence parsingmy mother likes her catsSentence parsingthe set of possible trees generated by the grammar is the search spaceparsing is searching through the space to find cor

22、rect tree for the given sentencegoal: find all trees which:1. have their root in S2. cover no more or less the words in the inputSentence parsingTwo methods1. top-down parsingThe tree must have S as its rootDeduction reasoningRule-drivenSentence parsingTwo methods1. top-down parsing2. bottom-up pars

23、ingThe tree must have n number of leaves, and the following terminal symbols: x, y, zInduction reasoningData-drivenSentence parsingTwo methods1. top-down parsingtrees grown downward to syntactic category nodestrees rejected if leaf nodes do not line up with all words in inputSentence parsingTwo meth

24、ods2. bottom-up parsingtrees grown upwards from the input sentence, using the grammarSentence parsingTwo methodsSentence parsingTop-downParallelDepth-first, left-to-right: fully expand each partial tree beginning at the left-most nodeSentence parsingTop-downBottom-up filteringLeft-corner tableSenten

25、ce parsingTop-downBottom-up filteringLeft-corner tableSentence parsingApplicationsGrammar checkerSemantic analysisSemantic and Lexical-based GrammarsSyntax-based grammars like Chomskys were an attempt to derive meaning through syntactic structure. Case Grammar is a system of linguistic analysis, foc

26、using on the link between the valence, or number of subjects, objects, etc., of a verb and the grammatical context it requires. The system was created by the American linguist Charles J. Fillmore in (1968), in the context of Transformational Grammar. This theory analyzes the surface syntactic struct

27、ure of sentences by studying the combination of deep cases (i.e. semantic roles) - Agent, Object, Benefactor, Location or Instrument - which are required by a specific verb. For instance, the verb give in English requires an Agent (A) and Object (O), and a Beneficiary (B); e.g. Jones (A) gave money

28、(O) to the school (B).According to Fillmore, each verb selects a certain number of deep cases which form its case frame. Thus, a case frame describes important aspects of semantic valency, of verbs, adjectives and nouns. Case frames are subject to certain constraints, such as that a deep case can oc

29、cur only once per sentence. Some of the cases are obligatory and others are optional. Obligatory cases may not be deleted, at the risk of producing ungrammatical sentences. For example, “Mary gave the apples ” is ungrammatical in this sense. A fundamental hypothesis of case grammar is that grammatic

30、al functions, such as subject or object, are determined by the deep, semantic valence of the verb, which finds its syntactic correlate in such grammatical categories as Subject and Object, and in grammatical cases such as Nominative(主格）, Accusative（宾格）, etc. Fillmore (1968) puts forwards the followi

31、ng hierarchy for a universal subject selection rule:Agent Instrumental ObjectiveThat means that if the case frame of a verb contains an agent, this one is realized as the subject of an active sentence; otherwise, the deep case following the agent in the hierarchy (i.e. Instrumental) is promoted to s

32、ubject.Semantic tagsMain tags are defined based on each verb.Example:Buy: John bought a book from Mary for 5 dollarsSell: Mary sold a book to John for 5 dollarsPay: John paid Mary 5 dollars for a book.Arg0Arg1Arg2Arg3Buybuyerthing boughtsellerprice paidSellsellerthing boughtbuyerprice paidPaybuyerpr

33、ice paidsellerthing boughtMapping between conceptual structure and grammatical functionBuy: buyer, thing bought, seller, price,.Possible syntactic realizations:(buyer, thing bought): John bought a book(price, thing bought): $5 can buy two books(thing bought, seller): The book was bought from Mary(bu

34、yer, thing bought, seller): John bought a book from Mary.*(buyer, price): John bought $5.AlternationsAn alternation is a set of different mappings of conceptual roles to grammatical function.Example: dative alternationJohn gave Mary a bookJohn gave a book to MaryVerb classes: give, donate,Methods in

35、 Sentence Processing Researchthe grammaticality judgment taskSELF-PACED READINGEYE-TRACKINGVisual contextthe grammaticality judgment taskif a sentence is according to your grammar, youll accept it (say its grammatical)if its , youll reject itWheres the library at?Whod you meet at the party?Between y

36、ou and I, the fact of the matter is you might reject a grammatical sentence because its hard to process:The machine covered with paper plates handles with chrome.The cat the dog the boy walked bit meowed.Mary put the candy on the table in her mouth.The son of Paraohs daughter looked at himself in th

37、e mirror.AN EXPERIMENTThe legionnaires marched into the desertand searched for the nearest oasis.The legionnaires marched into the desertsurprised the Persian forces.HYPOTHESIS2nd sentence is harder: violates Minimal Attachmentlets see how!SVPmarched into the desertNPthelegion-naires The legionnaire

38、s marched into the desert and searched for the nearest oasis.conjandVPVPsearched for the nearestoasismarched into the desertSNPthelegion-naires The legionnaires marched into the desert surprised the Persian forces.NPmarched into the desertVPVPsurprised the Persian forcesQUESTIONNAIRESa grammaticalit

39、y / acceptability judgment taskOn a scale of 1-7, indicate how acceptable you think each of these sentences are.1 = perfectly acceptable (SPLENDID)7 = perfectly awful (WOEFUL)The legionnaires marched into the desert and searched for the nearest oasis.1234567The legionnaires marched into the desert s

40、urprised the Persian forces.1234567ASSETS & LIABILITIESof questionnaire procedures?flexiblelow-tech labtest 100 people at a timeoff-line: metaling. awareness, presriptive rulessubjects might engage in weird behavior: strategies, looking back, reading Q before sentence, etc.RSVPrapid serial visual pr

41、esentationwords presented center-screen500 msec for each wordpresentation rate could be variedtask is to remember entire sentence and repeat or write downmeasurement: accuracy of recallThelegionnairesmarchedintothedesertandsearchedforthenearestoasis.ThelegionnairesmarchedintothedesertsurprisedthePer

42、sianforces.SELF-PACED READINGsubject controls pace of presentationconstraints on speed determined by experimenter:time-outs, instructionsmaterials presented in a series of “chunks”word-by-word, phrase-by-phrase, clause-by-clausedifferent types of displayscentered, incremental, moving windowThelegion

43、nairesmarchedintothedesertandsearchedforthenearestoasis.CTRD, WD-BY-WDThelegionnairesmarchedintothedesertsurprisedthePersianforces.CTRD, WD-BY-WDSPR, wd-by-wd: measureThelgnnairesmarchedintothedesertandsearchedforthenearestoasisThelgnnairesmarchedintothedesertsurprisedthePersianforcesThe legionnaire

44、s marchedinto the desertand searchedfor the nearest oasis.CTRD, PHR-BY-PHRThe legionnaires marchedinto the desertsurprisedthe Persian forces.CTRD, PHR-BY-PHRSPR, wd-by-wd: measureThe legionnaires marchedinto the desertand searchedfor the nearest oasisThe legionnaires marchedinto the desertsurprisedt

45、he Persian forcesThestudenttoldtheprofessorthateveryonehatedalie.INCREMENTALThestudenttoldtheprofessorthateveryonehatedalie.MOVING WINDOW-.MOVING WINDOW: VARIATIONThestudenttoldtheprofessorthateveryonehatedalie.KEEPING THE SUBJECTS HONESTasking questions after every trialafter every N trialsnever?ex

46、cluding error-prone subjectsproviding instant feedbackthe speed-accuracy trade-off:the faster you respond, the more likely youll make errors-.Thestudenttoldtheprofessorthateveryonehatedalie.Who told a lie?the student the professorDid the professor lie?Did the student lie?correct 2359SAME-DIFFERENT S

47、ENTENCE-MATCHINGThe legionnaires marched into the desert and searched for the nearest oasis.The legionnaires marched into the desert and searched for the nearest oasis.The alligator with the sharp teeth inspected the rifle.The alligator with the sharp teeth inspected his rifle.The legionnaires march

48、ed into the desert surprised the Persian forces.The legionnaires marched into the desert surprised the Persian forces.Everyone at the party knew Anns date had made a fool of himself.Everyone at the party knew Anns mate had made a fool of himself.EYE-TRACKING: fine-grainedEYETRACKING: “Real World” pa

49、radigmVisual context (Tanenhaus, Spivey-Knowlton, Eberhard & Sedivy, 1995)Visual world paradigmPeople hear a sentence and look at a visual sceneWhat they look at will tell us how they interpreted the sentencePP-attachment ambiguitiesPut the frog on the napkin into the box Destination of putting even

50、t Destination Interpretationon the napkin Modifier of the NP the frog” Modifier Interpretation (“the frog that is on the napkin”) The hypothesisThe visual context will influence interpretationThe basic preference is for a destination interpretation (more frequent)BUT prefer a modifier interpretation

51、 when there are two frogs in the visual contextOne frog visual contextPut the frog on the napkin into the boxFixations to the napkin and to the frog FixationActionTwo frogs visual contextPut the frog on the napkin into the boxNo fixations to the napkin. Immediate modifier interpretationIn the contex

52、t of two frogs, the frog isnt enough, we want more informationFixationActionWhat weve learned?Ambiguity resolution is influenced by semantic knowledge, frequency and the visual contextDifferent sources of information are rapidly integrated Learning from ambiguityAmbiguity resolution can tell us abou

53、t processing preferences and the factors influencing themLanguage processing is incremental and interactiveImmediate Processing of Sentences102Parsing (1)ParsingAssign elements of its surface structure to linguistic categories.Results in phrase marker (a tree structure; Fig. 6.1)SNPVPNdetVNPdetNthan

54、kedTheactortheaudienceSNPdetTheSNPNdetTheactorSSNPVPNdetVNPdetthankedTheactortheSSNPVPNdetVthankedTheactorFig. 6.1Five Stages in the parsing of a sentence.103Parsing (2): Immediacy PrincipleAs we encounter a word in a sentence, we immediately make decisions about where to place the word into the phr

55、ase marker, although we sometimes postpone decisions (Just and Carpenter, 1980).Otherwise, the number of decisions involved in understanding even a sentence can overload our cognitive resources.(1) John bought the flower for Susan.for = to give to or not?If its heard, flower has the other interpreta

56、tion flour.Immediate processing may lead to errors in parsing.(2) The florist sent the flowers .At this point sent the flowers looks like the main verb phrase.(3) The florist sent the flowers was very pleased.Sent the flowers is an embedded relative clause.We are surprised by the continuation in (3)

57、.105Parsing Strategies (1): Late Closure StrategyAttaching new items to the current constituent (Frazier, 1987; Frazier & Fodor, 1978; Kimball, 1973).(5) Tom said that Bill had taken the cleaning out yesterday.We tend to prefer attaching yesterday to the main clause Tom said than to the subsequent s

58、ubordinate clause Bill had taken .(6) Jessie put the book Kathy was reading in the library We tend to prefer attaching in the library to the latter verb reading.The burden on working memory is reduced.Frazier and Rayner (1982)(7) Since jay always jogs a mile seems like a very short distance to him.E

59、ye fixation times on the last few words were longer than on the earlier ones.This implies that the readers had misinterpreted a mile and had to make some later adjustments. garden path sentence .108Parsing Strategies (2): Minimal Attachment StrategyUsing the fewest syntactic nodes in the phrase mark

60、er (Frazier, 1987; Frazier & Fodor, 1978)(8) Ernie kissed Marcie and her sister We prefer to interpret her sister as a recipient of a kiss, rather than as the beginning of a new noun phrase.Frazier and Rayner (1982)(9) The city council argued the mayors position forcefully.(10) The city council argu