河北师范大学考研必备语言学

1、 师大语言学考研必备 英语语言学概论一、课程说明:   语言学概论课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。   语言学概论研究始于20世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。   本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第学期和第学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为

2、选修。二、教学目的及要求:本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解语言学概论这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。  本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。   本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理

3、论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。 三、教学重点与难点:  本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。四、与其它课程的关系:  本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。五、学时与学分:    学时：学时学分：学分 六、教学内容：第一章      绪论本章主要教学内容:1 

4、 语言学习的意义。2  语言的定义。3  语言的定义特征。4  语言的起源。5  语言的功能。6  语言学的定义。7  语言学的核心内容。8  宏观语言学的定义及分支。9  语言学研究中的重要概念区分。本章教学目的和要求:本章是全书的绪论。学习的目的是认识语言学的性质，以及人类语言的本质和特点。要求学生认知、理解语言学的的研究对象，语言学的各个分支，明晰语言学研究中几对基本概念的区别。本章教学重点及难点:1.       语言定义和区别性特征。2.

5、0;      语言的功能。3.       几对重要概念的区分。4.       语言的区别性特征。5.       几对重要概念的区分。 第二章      语言声音本章主要教学内容:1  发声与感知。2  发音器官。3  音标。4  元音及辅音。5  宽式

6、音标窄 式音标。6  音位理论。7  音韵的过程。8  区别性特征。9  音节和重读的概念及功能作用。本章主要教学目的及要求:本章的中心是语音，要求对各种发音器官有所了解。对英语的元音、辅音的描述，分清宽式音标和窄式音标，以及音韵学的一些基本概念和基本规律。二  本章教学重点及难点: 本章的教学重点是语音学的概念及分类，发音器官，元音及辅音的定义和分类方法，宽式音标和窄式音标，音位理论， 区别性特征，重读的概念及功能。 第三章      词  汇一  本章

7、主要教学内容:1  单词的概念。2  构词法。1）  词素和形态学。2）  词素类型。3）  曲折变化和单词构成。4）  音韵学和形态学的对照。3  词汇变迁。二  本章教学目的及要求:本章要求了解语素这个概念；掌握英语常见的构词法；了解词汇的历史变迁。三  本章教学重点及难点:1  词素的概念和词素的类型、曲折变化、词汇的变迁。2  词素的概念、词素变体、词语的三层含义和音韵学与形态学的对照。第四章      句法学本章主要教学内容:

8、1  传统语法  包括数、格等语法范畴。2  结构主义语法。3  生成语法  （ 可结合附录中有关生成语法的内容）。4  功能语法。本章教学目的及要求:本章从传统语法、结构主义语法、生成语法和功能主义语法四个角度阐述了句法学的主要内容。要求学生了解这四种方法的具体内容以及一些重要的概念，并深刻认识到语言的语法体系是一套高度抽象自律性规则系统、句子的线性与层次性、深层结构与表层结构等关系。本章教学重点及难点:传统语法中的数、格、性时态和语态、结构语法中的直接成分分析法和向心结构、离心结构、生成语法中的深层结构和表层结构。 第五

9、章      意  义本章主要教学内容:1  意义的意义。2  所指理论。3  意义关系。4  成分分析。5  句子意义。本章教学目的及要求:本章对意义进行研究。要求学生对几种主要的对意义研究的途径有所了解。明析词汇与词汇之间和句子与句子之间的关系，了解近代语言学中对词义研究的重要方法。本章教学重点及难点:本章的教学重点是：所指理论、意义关系和成分分析。本章的教学难点是：所指理论和成分分析。句子意义这一部分内容可用于补充阅读材料。 第七章  语言、文化、社会本章主要

10、教学内容:1.     语言与文化的关系。1)     语言和文化如何关联。2)     萨皮尔-沃夫假说。3)     个案研究。4)     文化在语言学研究中的地位。5)     文化在语言课堂教学中的作用。6.       语言与社会的关系和社会语言学。本章教学目的及要求:本章重点教授语言和

11、文化、社会的关系，使学生对语言现象以及附带的社会、文化内涵产生兴趣，并了解一些相关的理论。本章教学重点及难点:1.       萨皮尔-沃夫假说、文化在语言课堂教学中的作用、社会语言学的定义和研究范围、社会语言学的应用。2.       萨皮尔-沃夫假说、文化在语言课堂中的作用及社会语言学的概念。                

12、 第八章  语言使用    本章主要教学内容:1.       言语行为理论。2.       会话含义理论。3.       其他理论。本章教学目的及要求:    本章重点讲授语用学的概念和著名的语用学理论、原则和研究成果。要求学生对这些理论、原则有初步的了解，并能用来解释一些生活中语言现象。本章教学重点及难点:1. 

13、0;     谚语行为理论、言内行为、言外行为、言后行为、合作原则、会话含义。2.       言语行为理论、违反合作原则所产生的会话含义。本章的第三部分作为补充材料供学生课外阅读。     第十一章  语言学与语言教学     本章主要教学内容:        1.语言学和外语教学的关系。2不同的观点、理论对外语教学的影响。3

14、大纲的制订。4.语言学习。5.错误分析。6.测试。本章教学目的及要求:本章的中心内容是语言学和外语教学的关系，介绍了影响外语教学的几种语言学理论和实践教学活动中常见的问题及对应策略，要求学生了解基本理论、掌握分析、测试的基本方法。建议师范类本科学生此章作为必修。本章教学重点及难点:1.       各种语言学理论在语言教学中的指导作用、交际能力理论、教学大纲的制定、语言学习中的输入和中介语的产生、错误分析的步骤和方法、两种不同的测试方法、测试类型和要求、测试内容和形式。2.     &

15、#160; 结构主义语言学在语言教学中的作用、转换生成语言学的理论观点、功能语言学在语言教学中的应用。 Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.Disign features:Definition: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that dist

16、inguish it from any animal system of communication2.1 Arbitrariness Definition: There is no logical connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. On the other hand, language is not entirely arbitrarya. onomatopoetic words(rumble, bang, crash)compound words (photocopy)b. at t

17、he syntactic level, there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happening. For example, He came in and sat down. He sat down and came in. He sat down after he came in.c. convention: the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convent

18、ion2.2 Duality Definition: Duality means the properties of having the levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization The term ”human” is meant to specify that language is hum

19、an-specific Discuss the saying “Language is human-specific”. In other words, what makes language different from animals system of communication .For example, the bears dancing. Language is a system , which consists of 2 sets of structures. At the lower or basic level there is a structure of sounds,

20、which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a larger number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system. Sounds words phrases sentences The lowest level consists of dozens of bits of meaningless sounds which occur in ch

21、umps that we call syllables. 2.3 Creativity (Productivity) Definition: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. The three-legged white monkey slept on the bed of the king of France. Gibbon calls- a limited repertoire Bee dancing-

22、 only to indicate food sources 2.4 Displacement Definition: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present(in time and space)at the moment of communicat

23、ion. Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places 2.5 Cultural Transmission Definition: Language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. The details of the linguistic s

24、ystem must be learned by each speaker. 2.6 Interchangeability Definition: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.3. Functions of Language1)Informative function This function is the major role of language. “Language serves for the expression of

25、 context: that is, of the speakers experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness”(Halliday)2)Interpersonal function This is the social use of language Through language people establish and maintain their status in a society. “Language serves to establish and mainta

26、in social rules, which include the communication roles created by language itself”(Halliday) The interpersonal function of language is the function of expressing identity. 3)Performative function(What do we do when using language) Language is used to do things This performative function of language

27、is to change the social status of persons. For example, in marriage ceremony, the sentencing of criminals, the naming of a ship 4)Emotive function Language is used to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. For example: ejaculations such as ”Good heavens”; “my God”; ”Im ext

28、remely sorry about it” It is used to change the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. It can be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others 5)Phatic communion It refers to the social interaction of language. When language is used to

29、 establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas, it fulfills the phatic function. For example: farewells, comments on the weather, greetings Malinowski(马林诺夫斯基)the social interaction of language. It is to maintain a comfortable relationship between

30、people without involving any factual content. Eg. Ritual exchanges about health and weather 6）Recreational function The use of language is for the sheer joy of using it. Eg Verbal dueling Poetry writing1. Linguistics§ 1.1 Definition§ 1.2 Major branches of linguistics§ 1.3 Macrolinguis

31、tics§ 1.4 Important distinctions in linguistics§ 1.1 Definition§ Linguistics is the scientific study of language.§ It tries to answer the following questions:§ What is language?§ How does language work?§ Explanation:§ “Scientific” means that it is based on the

32、 systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.§ “Study” means investigation.§ “Language” means languages in general, that is, linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general. § 1.2 Major br

33、anches of linguistics§ 1.2.1 Phonetics§ Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produdced, transmitted, and perceived. It includes three parts: § Articulatory phonetics§ Acoustic phonetics§ Auditory phonetics§ 1.2.2 Phonology§ Phonology is the study of the sound pa

34、tterns and sound systems of languages. § Phoneme is the departing point of the phonological study. It is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. For example,pin, bin, tin, din - /p, b, t, d/ are phonemes which can distinguish meanings of these words.§

35、 Then what is the relation between phonetics and phonology? Think about this question and we will discuss it in Chapter 2.§ 1.2.3 Morphology§ Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.§ Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in a l

36、anguage. § 1.2.4 Syntax§ Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways words are combined into sentences in a language.§ Words are organized into structures more than just word order, e.g.,§ A. The children watched the firework from the hill.§ B. The children watched t

37、he firework from the hill.§ 1.2.5 Semantics§ Semantics is the study of meaning.§ It studies the meanings of linguistic units without concerning the influence of the context of situation, i.e., it studies the de-contextualized meaning.§ 1.2.6 Pragmatics§ Pragmatics is the stu

38、dy of meaning in context. (Then what is the difference between semantics and pragmatics?)§ Pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured§ 1.3 Macrolinguistics an interdisciplinary nature§ It concerns wit

39、h the relation between language and other disciplines which are also preoccupied with language, for example, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, computational linguistics, neurolinguistics, applied linguistics, etc. § 1.4 Important distinctions in linguistics§

40、 1.4.1 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive§ Examples:§ 1. a) It is I.§ b) It is me.§ 2. a) Who did you speak to?§ b) Whom did you speak to?§ 3. a) I havent done anything.§ b) I havent done nothing§ Descriptive The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the lan

41、guage people actually use.§ Prescriptive the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.§ Descriptive explanations of the three examples:§ 1) The Latin rule is not

42、 universal. In English, “me” is informal and “I” is felt to be very formal.§ 2) “Whom” is used in formal speech and in writing, and “who” is more acceptable in informal speech.§ 3) Language dose not have to follow logical reasoning. Here two negatives in 3b) only make a more emphatic negat

43、ive. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical but because language changes and rejects this usage now.§ To sum up:§ Prescriptive: Do/Dont say X.§ Descriptive: People do/dont say X.§ If a descriptive grammar of a non-prestige variety of Engli

44、sh were written, it might show, for example, that speakers of this variety said:§ I seen im. for I saw him.§ im n me done it. for He and I did it.§ 1.4.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic§ Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (Course in General Linguistics, 1916): “SYNCHRONIC”, in which

45、languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time, and “DIACHRONIC”, in which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time are treated historically (Robins, 1967: 200).§ Language exists in time and changes through time.§ The descrip

46、tion of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study (Shakespeares English)§ The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (a historical study the historical development of language over a period of time). Time 1Description of the sound syst

47、em of Early EnglishSynchronic study§ description of changes diachronic§ between the two systems studyTime 2Description of the sound system of Modern EnglishSynchronic study§ 1.4.3 Langue & Parole§ Saussure distinguished the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members

48、 of a speech community and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue and Parole.§ Langue is not complete in any individual speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity§ In separating langue from parole we are at the same time separating § 1) what is social from

49、what is individual; and § 2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental.§ Which one should linguists study? Langue or Parole?§ Langue 1) the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by; 2) abstract, not the language people actually

50、use; 3) relatively stable, does not change frequently.§ Parole 1) the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; 2) concrete, the naturally occurring language events; 3) varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.§ 1.4.4 Competence vs. performance&

51、#167; American linguist Noam Chomsky (Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, 1965)§ Competence the ideal users underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language§ Performance the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situation§ Chomsky points out that the task of a li

52、nguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.§ Chomskys distinction of competence and performance is related to the langue-parole distinction of Saussure, but there are some differences between them, what are they

53、?§ What is the difference between Saussure and Chomsky?§ Saussure a sociological view of language (Langue is a matter of social conventions.)§ Chomsky a psychological view (Competence is a property of the mind of each individual.)§ Which one should be studied?§ Langue or Par

54、ole? Competence or Performance?§ Arguments:§ There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Some of them are ethnic background, socioeconomic status, and regions of the country; some are the factors as physical state changes within t

55、he individual, intoxication, fatigue, distraction, and illness. So there have been some arguments on Chomskys thinking that§ “Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech community, who knows its language perfectly”.§ Dell Hyme

56、s studies language from a socio-cultural viewpoint and proposed “communicative competence” speakers vary their performance not at random but in a regular way (the pragmatic ability of language use).Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Phonetics Phonology I. Phonetics 1.1 Definition Phonetics studies how speech s

57、ounds are produced, transmitted and perceived; it is concerned with the sounds that occur in the world s languages. 1.2 Three Areas of Phonetics 1. Articulatory phoneticsthe study of the production of speech sounds 2. Acoustic phoneticsthe study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in s

58、peech sounds 3. Auditory phoneticsthe study of the perception of speech sounds. 1.3 Speech organs (vocal organs) 1. speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. 2. They are contained in three areas: 1) the pharyngeal cavitythe throat 2) the oral cavitythe mou

59、th 3) the nasal cavitythe nose 3. The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in various ways. 1.31 The pharyngeal cavity 1. Air stream from the lungs windpipeglottis 2. Vocal cords are two tissues. When they are folded back, air passes freely and silently; when they held

60、together, air vibrates them at different speeds when forcing its passage through them; when they are totally closed, no air can pass through them and then release the air stream suddenly. 1.32 The oral cavity 1. The oral cavity contains the uvula, the soft palate(the velum),the hard palate, the teeth ridge(the alveolus), the teeth, the lips, and the tongue. 2. In phonetics, the tongue is divided into five parts: the tip ,the blade, the front, the back and the root. 3. In phonology, the sounds made with these parts of the tongue are often referred t