混合动力汽车、纯电动汽车及燃料电池毕业设计翻译原文

1、 Which energy source for road transport in the future? A comparison of battery, hybrid and fuel cell vehiclesJ. Van Mierlo *, G. Maggetto, Ph. LataireDepartment of Electrical Engineering and Energy Technology (ETEC,Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050Brussels, BelgiumAvailable online 23Marc

2、h 2006AbstractThe hydrogen era is foreseen following the European research programme in a time horizon of 20202040. But there will be clearly a choice to be made between an electron economy (directuse of the produced electricity and the so called hydrogen economy which leads to the introduction of a

3、n intermediate hydrogen production, transport and distribution process before the nal use in an electrical process.This paper considers only passenger car and delivery vans applications. In this eld a big time gap is to be lled between the situation today, the occurrence of oil shortage in a quite s

4、hort future and this time horizon 20202040. Todays inter-mediate solutions are clearly based on hybrid electric vehicles and battery electric vehicles. The performances of these solu-tions are putting a lot of questions on the necessity of a hydrogen economy for future transportation. The paper disc

5、usses performances of hybrid electric vehicles and battery electric vehicles in comparison of the future hydrogen fuel cell based systems which are now in R&Dphase and a very beginning of eld demonstration.2006Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords:Hydrogen; Road transport; Battery electric vehi

6、cles; Hybrid electric vehicles; Fuel cell electric vehicles1. IntroductionThe electric vehicle is an optimum solution for urban mobility as it emits no exhaust fumes. Particularly in cities and in adverse climatic conditions, trac-generated emissions are degrading air quality up to the point where t

7、he physical health of the population is directly threatened. Several cities have already had to apply repeatedly drastic trac restrictions. The electric vehicle is also ideally suited to be integrated into new trac management concepts, such as automatic rent-a-car systems and goods distribution cent

8、res, or small buses for city-centre services.*Corresponding author. Tel.:+3226292804.E-mail addresses:Joeri.van.mierlovub.ac.be(J.Van Mierlo, gmaggetvub.ac.be(G.Maggetto, platairevub.ac.be(Ph.Lataire.For all these reasons, an increasing number of cities and environmentally concerned companies have i

9、ntro-duced electric vehicles in their eets. Today, there is a clear necessity to generalise the support organised at the European level preparing so the step towards hydrogen electric vehicles.The oil crisis is clearly in an initial development step and is going to take dramatic dimensions 13calling

10、 for an urgent introduction of alternative fuels for road transport with electricity playing a major role. How-ever the electricity, storage remains a key point. The development of alternative battery systems shows the pos-sibility of making a real technical and economic breakthrough in a short or m

11、edium term consistent with an important market development. New battery types such as high-temperature batteries, Nickel-metal hydride batteries, and lithium-based batteries are already on the market or will be available in the coming years. Due to their high energy density (70W h/kgfor NiMH and 125

12、W h/kgfor Li compared to 40W h/kgfor Pb and 60for NiCd 4, they will oer unprecedented vehicle ranges, up to 250km and even much more through the introduction of range extenders. A powerful public national and European support is still necessary as well as an eective marketing approach.The long-range

13、 or multi-mission electrically driven vehicle will become a reality through the development of hybrid drive trains. Hybrid vehicles combine electric and other drive systems, such as internal combustion engines, gas turbines and fuel cells. The main advantage of this combination is the permanent inte

14、raction between the highly ecient electric system and the thermal engine or fuel cell. Here too, the power batteries or other power boosters such as super capacitors play a key role. A number of reliable vehicles are coming on the market today with a large spectrum of hybridisation ratios (fromstart

15、 and stop systems to full hybrid power train.Due to the inbuilt dual function hybrid vehicles have a longer range than battery electric vehicles. They can oer the option of running on electricity alone in urban environments so being locally zero emission at this time. Some of these vehicles can be p

16、lugged-in using conventional or renewable sources of energy to produce electricity in an eective way.The hybrid technology is now particularly favoured for heavy-duty vehicles such as city-buses and leads to 2030%reduction in both energy consumption and associated emissions.Several studies have inve

17、stigated the well-to-wheel energy consumption of vehicles using alternative fuels or drive trains 58. Several pathways to produce hydrogen and other fuels and to use it in several internal com-bustion engines, hybrid drive trains or fuel cell vehicles are compared in these studies. However a compari

18、son with battery electric vehicles is mostly omitted in these studies.The objective of this paper is comparing the battery and hybrid electric vehicles with conventional vehicles and fuel cell electric vehicles on the basis of energy consumption. The duality between battery electric vehicle and fuel

19、 cell electric vehicle will be extensively demonstrated in the following sections.2. Facts related with the mobility of people and goodsLet us highlight some facts about the mobility of people and goods.2.1. EmploymenteconomyThe European transport industry is an important economy sector as stated by

20、 the following data (forthe 15 EU member states:14million workers or employees (i.e.10%of the active population where less than 6mil-lion in the transport services, 2million in the equipment sector and 6million in transport connected activities. Fourteen percent (14%of families revenue are devoted t

21、o transport. The modal distribution of the people mobility expressed in passenger kilometers (p.kmsounds as follows:79%by car, 8%by bus, 7%by air, 6%by rail and less than 1%by tram or underground. The modal distribution of goods transport formulated in ton kilometers (ton.kmshow a dierent picture:43

22、%by road, 41%by sea, 9%by rail, 4%by land water-ways and 3%by pipelines.The total added value (EU15of the automotive industry is around 290BEuro. However there are also important external eects due to our mobility like pollution, congestion and safety. The total external cost is estimated to have th

23、e same order of magnitude as this added value, namely 225BEuro.J. Van Mierlo et al. /Energy Conversion and Management 47(20062748276027492.2. GrowthThe growth of the European transport is forecast as follows:between 1998and 2010a growth of passenger kilometers of 24%and good transport (ton.kmof 38%.

24、The most important expansion in passenger transport is expected in air transport (90%and for good transport in road transport (50%9.The growth of the number of cars worldwide is more worrying (seeFig. 1. At the 2030horizon the number of road vehicles in the OECD countries (800million vehicles will b

25、e the same as in the rest of the world, which means doubling the todays worldwide vehicle number. This is also corresponding with a 65%growth in the OECD countries resulting from a 2%annual growth.2.3. EnergyThe energy eciency of the dierent transportation means is strongly varying as a result of th

26、ermodynamic laws, type of technology and power level.Knowing that the energy eciency of a car in the city falls below 15%does not worry anybody (but80%of the cars are driven in the cities! notwithstanding the fact that this means that from a 50l fuel tank only 7.5l are useful and the remaining 42.5l

27、 are transformed in heat and pollutants. Among the todays fuels, diesel is the most ecient followed by gasoline and the gaseous fuels (naturalgas and LPG.For the evaluation of the energy consumption of any transport means caution is a must. Indeed an empty vehicle is wasteful and there is a clear ne

28、cessity to evaluate its eciency with regard to its function i.e. moving people or goods.Taking the following lling rate as a reference:35%for cars (1.4person per vehicle, 40%up to 70%for trains, 60%for intercity buses and also 60%for national ights, the comparative results listed hereunder are obtai

29、ned. This analysis is based on the well-to-wheel energy consumption for the trip between several German cities 12. For passenger transport (Wh/passenger.kilometer: the train will use 15%up to 50%less primary energy than the car; the intercity bus, lighter than the train, will reach about 70%of the e

30、nergy consumption of the latter and 42%of the car consumption;Fig. 1. Motor vehicle eet, OECD and the rest of the world, 1990203010,11.2750J. Van Mierlo et al. /Energy Conversion and Management 47(200627482760 the airplane will be at 60%of the car but at 300%of the fast train (notvalid for high-spee

31、d trains; but for airplanes time plays an important economic role; in the city, the underground will easily have 50%consumption less than the car; For goods transportation mass and volume have to be considered (Wh/ton.kilometer: the boat used for inland transport can reach 200%of the rail because of

32、 its diesel motorisation; rail transport will reach 4050%of the road transport consumption.Whichever transportation example is considered, it is necessary to take the energy consumption of all trans-portation means used between origin and destination into account. For the economic evaluation of a tr

33、ip its duration will have a non-negligible importance.The above given data are only indicative as they are resulting from a number of typical trip. They are dem-onstrating the necessity to analyse the trips per category as well as the necessity to compare the potential energy benet of the dierent tr

34、ansportation means.The benet coming from the rail (tram,underground is the result of the combination of two important factors:the transport capacity and the use of electric energy thanks to the eciency of the electric drive system (powerelectronics and electric motor. The comparison is based on a we

35、ll-to-wheel approach and hence includes the energy losses corresponding to electricity production and transport.Long distance transportation (morethan 2000km is to be considered dierently because of the choice of the transportation means in function of the object that has to be transported:90%of the

36、 export trade of the EU (referringto the volume of goods is performed by maritime transport which covers also 41%of the EU internal goods transportation.The use of energy by todays transport systems is far oering the demonstration of a poorly ecient use. 2.4. Evolution of the EU energy supplyThe ene

37、rgy dependence of the EU has evolved from 40%in 1990down to 35%in 2000. This could reach 60%within 2030years correspondin g with 80%for oil, 70%for natural gas and 50%for coal 13.Very recently oil companies have revised their oil reserve forecasting an end to cheap oil (oroil as energy source? again

38、st 20302040. This is conrmed by other independently published data. Referring to the IEA, see Fig. 2, a maximum of oil production could be reach within 1015year naturally followed by a production decrease and a demand exceeding the oer.Fig. 2. Oil demand and supply. Source:Fossil fuel implications o

39、f climate change mitigation responses, Jonathan Pershing, International Energy Agency.J. Van Mierlo et al. /Energy Conversion and Management 47(2006274827602751Other forecasts indicate even shorter time delays. Consequently, price increase is to be expected together with geopolitics tensions. Even t

40、he exploitation of less accessible and or lower quality reserves will not clear up this situation. For natural gas the conditions prevailing are the same but with a somewhat longer delay (10 20year.2.5. EmissionsThe environmental state of the Earth is determined by the superposition of all local emi

41、ssions. Some are controllable (transport,electricity production, industry, etc., others totally not (volcanoes,radiance of sun, etc. Limiting the contribution of transport to pollution can only be performed through local and regional actions, which success is strongly dependent of the awareness of t

42、he people concerned.The gradual introduction of the mandatory European emission standards, EURO I, EURO II, EURO III, EURO IV (2005and EURO V (lorriesand other heavy vehicles, 2008 leads to the control of the CO, NO x , hydrocarbons and particulate emissions. They will be reduced in the EU and in th

43、e other OECD countries despite the foreseeable increase of the automotive eet and covered distance. For the rest of the world an important increase by 45%up to 55%is expected for the dierent pollutants.The emissions of the electricity production sector are clearly more and more under control which i

44、s a very positive situation for most of the public transport systems (trains,trams, underground, trolleybuses, and elec-tric mini-and midi buses.The case of CO 2is totally dierent due to its proportional connection with the performed passenger.kilo-meter (p.kmfor people mobility and ton.kilometer (t

45、on.kmfor goods transport. The eciency of the internal combustion engines (ICEcan still increase somewhat in the next ten years (butwith costly investment, but one is nearing more and more its limits of improvement and consequently working more and more on asymp-totic values. Such situation is also v

46、alid for vehicle weight and shaping. In any case it is worth noting that the mean yearly emissions of cars is of 4up to 5tons CO 2corresponding with four to ve time the mass of a 1000kg vehicle.The automotive industry (ACEAhas committed itself to reduce the CO 2emissions from 190g/kmin 1995 to 120g/

47、kmin 2012in order to counterbalance the increase of the p.km.For Belgium an IFEU study (thatcould also be valid as a mean situation for the rest of the EU is fore-casting an increase by 610%of the CO 2emissions between 2000and 2020corresponding with an annual increase of 0.30.55%and resulting from t

48、he combination of better vehicle performances and an increase of the total number of driven kilometers 14.Between 1998and 2010an increase of +27%CO 2emissions is foreseen in EU-159. In the EU, 28%of the emissions are transport bounded while it is forecast that 90%of the total emissions increase will

49、 have the same origin. Worldwide, the forecast increase is even more dramatic:not less than 110120%.The OECD mentions almost 4billion ton CO 2from motor vehicle operation in 1990and 8billion ton in 202010.3. Technical evolution of land transport means (excludinglorriesTwo important factors inuencing

50、 the future transport means technology are the access to energy and the state of environment 1517.3.1. A short analysis of propulsion technologyThe energy chain of a conventional vehicle is composed of a fuel tank (gasoline,diesel or gas, an ICE (elec-tronically controlled, a transmission (alsoelect

51、ronically controlled, a dierential, the wheels. A coupling decoupling system is needed to allow stops or sucient torque while starting or changing gear.The energy chain of a battery electric vehicle is composed of a battery, a power electronic converter, an electric motor (orwheel motors, a dierenti

52、al and the wheels. A fuel cell system (hydrogentank or on-board hydrogen production unit feeding a fuel cell replacing the battery, is in this case a possible future alternative solution. No couplingdecoupling system is needed and maximum torque is developed at starting.2752J. Van Mierlo et al. /Ene

53、rgy Conversion and Management 47(200627482760Energy recovery while braking is a major feature of these electrically driven systems. Furthermore the pres-ence of a battery means the necessity to use an on-board or o-board battery charger. The association of ICEs and electric motors leads to the hybri

54、d systems for which four basic structures are listed hereafter:The series hybrid has only an electric propulsion system (powerelectronic converter, electric motor(s,dif-ferential, wheels electrically fed by one two or three sources parallel connected (seeFig. 3.In the thermal series hybrid one of th

55、e sources is composed of a fuel tank (diesel,gasoline, and gas, an ICE or gas turbine driving an alternator, a power electronic converter (indicatedas charger in Fig. 3. Parallel connected on this source, a battery (andor a power unit like a ywheel system or super capacitor is delivering power while

56、 accelerating the vehicle and can also recover the braking energy. When none of these units is pres-ent we have the structure commonly named diesel-electric.The Engine-generator in this conguration can also be replaced by a fuel cell system. In this case we have a fuel cell hybrid drive train.The pa

57、rallel hybrid system combines electric traction and ICE traction (seeFig. 4. The system fuel tank-ICE is combining its mechanical output energy with the mechanical energy provided by the battery-power electronic converter-electric motor system both being mechanically coupled at the level of the tran

58、smission to drive the wheels. Energy recovery while braking is also a major feature of these systems. The start-stop and the mild hybrid systems are currently not designed for regenerative braking.Combining the series hybrid structure with the parallel structure leads to the so-called combined or se

59、ries-parallel structure (seeFig. 5. By introducing a planetary gear connected to a generator in the parallel J. Van Mierlo et al. /Energy Conversion and Management 47(2006274827602753hybrid conguration one gets a combined drive train. This is the topology also used in the well known Toyota Prius. This