什么是战略讲稿

1、什么是战略？第一部分：主要理论介绍取得卓越业绩是所有企业的首要目标，运营效益（operational effectiveness）和战略（strategy）是实现这一目标的两个关键因素，但人们往往混淆了这两个最基本的概念。运营效益意味着相似的运营活动能比竞争对手做得更好。战略定位（strategic positioning）则意味着运营活动有别于竞争对手，或者虽然类似，但是其实施方式有别于竞争对手。 几乎没有企业能一直凭借运营效益方面的优势立于不败之地。运营效益代替战略的最终结果必然是零和竞争（zero-sum competition）、一成不变或不断下跌的价格，以及不断上升的成本压力。

2、60; 所谓的竞争战略就是创造差异性，即有目的地选择一整套不同的运营活动以创造一种独特的价值组合。战略定位有三个不同的原点，一是基于种类的定位（variety-based positioning）；二是基于需求的定位（needs-based positioning）；三是基于接触途径的定位（access-based positioning）。 在对定位进行明确定义后，我们现在可以回答“什么是战略”的问题了。战略就是创造一种独特、有利的定位，涉及各种不同的运营活动。 然而，选择一个独特的定位并不能保证获得持久优势。一个有价值的定位会引起他人的争相仿效。除非公司做出一定的取舍（

3、trade-offs），否则，任何一种战略定位都不可能持久。  因此，对“什么是战略”这一问题的回答又增加了一个新视角取舍。战略就是在竞争中做出取舍，其实质就是选择不做哪些事情。 定位选择不仅决定公司应该开展哪些运营活动、如何设计各项活动，而且还决定各项活动之间如何关联。战略配称是创造竞争优势最核心的因素，它可以建立一个环环相扣、紧密联接的链，将模仿者拒之门外。配称可以分为三类，第一层面的配称是保持各运营活动或各职能部门与总体战略之间的简单一致性（simple consistency）。第二层面的配称是各项活动之间的相互加强。第三层面的配称已经超越了各项活动之间的相互加强，

4、我把它称为“投入最优化”（optimization of effort）。  在三种类型的配称中，整体作战比任何一项单独活动都来得重要与有效。竞争优势来自各项活动形成的整体系统（entire system）。将有竞争力的企业的成功归因于个别的优势、核心竞争力或者关键资源都是极其错误的。试图模仿整个运营活动系统的竞争对手，如果仅仅复制某些活动而非整个系统，最后收效必然甚微。  现在，对于战略是什么，我们已经有了一个完整的答案。所谓战略，就是在企业的各项运营活动之间建立一种配称。 在影响战略的诸多因素中，强烈的增长欲望也许是最危险的。追求增长的努力往往会淡化企业的独特

5、性，以致产生妥协、破坏配称，并最终削弱公司的竞争优势。增长手段应该集中于对现有战略定位进行深化而不是拓宽和妥协。  制定或重建一个清晰的战略，在很大程度上取决于组织的领导者。最高管理层不仅仅是每个职能部门的总指挥，其核心任务应该是制定战略：界定并宣传公司独特的定位，进行战略取舍，在各项运营活动之间建立配称关系。 改善运营效益是管理中必不可少的一部分，但这并不是战略。运营效益讨论的是持续变革、组织弹性以及如何实现最佳实践，而战略讨论的是如何界定独特的定位、如何做出明确的取舍、如何加强各项活动之间的配称性。 第二部分：具体案例分析一、宜家案例宜家家居（IKEA）于19

6、43年创建于瑞典，“为大多数人创造更加美好的日常生活”是宜家公司自创立以来一直努力的方向。宜家品牌始终和提高人们的生活质量联系在一起并秉承“为尽可能多的顾客提供他们能够负担，设计精良，功能齐全，价格低廉的家居用品”的经营宗旨。 在提供种类繁多，美观实用，老百姓买得起的家居用品的同时，宜家努力创造以客户和社会利益为中心的经营方式，致力于环保及社会责任问题。今天，瑞典宜家集团已成为全球最大的家具家居用品商家，销售主要包括座椅/沙发系列，办公用品，卧室系列，厨房系列，照明系列，纺织品，炊具系列，房屋储藏系列，儿童产品系列等约10，000个产品。目前宜家家居在全球38个国家和地区拥有310个商场，其中

7、有11家在中国大陆，分别在北京、天津、上海（两家）、广州、成都、深圳、南京、无锡、大连、沈阳。宜家的采购模式是全球化的采购模式，它在全球设立了16个采购贸易区域，其中有3个在中国大陆，分别为：华南区，华中区和华北区。目前宜家在中国的采购量已占到总量的18%，在宜家采购国家中排名第一。根据规划，至2012年，宜家在中国内地的零售商场将达到11家，所需仓储容量将由现在的10万立方米扩大到30万立方米以上。中国已成为宜家最大的采购市场和业务增长最重要的空间之一，在宜家的全球战略中具有举足轻重的地位。宜家成功营销的策略1：巧妙命名。IKEA 这个名字，是由创始人英格瓦·坎普拉德名字的首写字母

8、（IK）和他所在农场（Elmtaryd ）以及村庄（Agunnaryd）的第一个字母组合而成的。更为巧妙的是，中文的“宜家”既与IKEA 谐音，又有了成语“宜室宜家”的美好寓意。夫妻和顺，家庭美满，是每一个人的梦想。再加上宜家的种种经营优势，宜家产品在中国，尤其是年轻人心目中已经成为时尚生活的标志。 2：独特设计。宜家产品充分体现了为大众设计的理念价廉、耐用、简单、自然，不能成为生活的束缚，还要能够满足全球化生产的需要。宜家将塑料、层板和松木作为基本的家具材料，通过对颜色和材料的精心选择搭配，使其产品既现代、美观，又实用、环保；既以人为本，又凸显地域特色，很好地表现出了那种源自瑞典南部斯莫兰自

9、然、清新、健康的生活方式。这些产品与斯莫兰民众勤劳、节俭和对有限资源最大程度地加以利用的美德紧密相连，极易引起消费者的认同和好感。 3：品种齐全。在宜家商场里，沙发、床、桌子、椅子、纺织品、厨房餐具、地板、地毯、厨房家具、浴室用品、灯具及植物等家居用品应有尽有。而且，宜家产品风格多样，浪漫主义者与简约主义者到宜家，都能乘兴而来、满意而归。 4：拆装便利。 1955 年，宜家一位员工突发灵感，决定把桌腿卸掉，以方便装车，并避免运输过程中的损坏。没想到，这种平板式包装，成了宜家节省生产和运输成本的重要手段。更为重要的是，在自己动手（DIY ）渐成时尚的情况下，这些拆装便利的家具大受欢迎。那些尤其喜

10、欢自己动手的德国人，往往不惜在宜家的收款台前排上个把小时的长队，回家再拼命地拧几个螺丝，把那些零散部件装配成书架、柜子或者别的什么。 5：开放销售。 1965 年，宜家开办了斯德哥尔摩商场，引来数千人排队等候开业。由于顾客太多，员工严重不足。后来，宜家决定开放仓库，让顾客自提货品。这种开放式销售方式从此成为宜家概念的重要组成部分。开放式销售使消费者可以仔细打量产品，并大大降低运输成本，它甚至导致了家具零售和制造业的革命，同时也极大地推进了宜家走向世界的速度。 6：低价入市。宜家的经营宗旨是：“提供种类繁多、美观实用、老百姓买得起的家居用品”。为打造低价商品，宜家在大力降低生产成本、采用平板式包

11、装和自选购物方式的同时，还通过大批量采购尽可能降低采购成本。 7：特色文化。在宜家文化中，除其具有瑞典自然、简朴特点的产品设计以及人性化的开放式销售外，还有三点不得不提：一是温馨餐厅。宜家的餐厅类似于“店中店”，顾客可以根据自己需要随时选择就餐或休息。二是关爱儿童。为满足孩子们的特殊需要，宜家开发了一批既能吸引儿童兴趣，又能提高孩子运动能力和创造力等的产品，开发了儿童游戏区、儿童样板间，餐厅专门备有儿童食品等。再有一点，就是“透明营销”。宜家始终坚持向消费者提供关于产品、价格、功能等方面的全部真实信息，使顾客能在充分掌握有关信息的前提下，自主作出合理的购物选择。宜家认为，如果你是最好的，就不会

12、害怕让顾客知道。顾客知道得越多，只会增加对产品的信赖和喜爱。宜家告诉顾客，在宜家购物，除了可以通过自己动手组装家具外，也可以预约宜家的室内装饰建筑师和设计师，请他们帮助你设计新房、改造旧居。宜家就是要让你尽可能享受到全面、优质而又低价的服务。二、露得清案例作为全球高效总部设于加州洛杉矶的Neutrogena，其创办人Emanuel Stolaroff于1930年开设了一家小型专业化妆品公司- Natone。Natone早期只提供产品给专业电影片厂合作的美容沙龙，自1940年起，它开始量产并铺货于一般的销售通路。1954年，Stolaroff在一次赴欧洲出差的机会中发现了一块由比利时的化学家博士

13、Edmond Fromont所发明的独特洗面皂，外观透明、质地非常温和，能充分洗净，不残留任何皂剂于肌肤上。洗脸后约10分钟，肌肤就能恢复自然的PH值。Stolaroff将这块洗面皂命名为Neutrogena并引进美国贩售。Neutrogena香皂俨然成为公司形象的代名词，于是Natone公司于1962年正式更名为Neutrogena。1967年Neutrogena总裁Lioyd Cotsen做了一项对Neutrogena公司影响深远的决策-将Neutrogena洗面皂的优点推荐给专业的医    露得清界人士。在Neutrogena香皂赢得医学界的特别青睐的同时，Neutr

14、ogena也在行销与研究方面下功夫，以求开发出安全、温和与优质护肤保养品。Neutrogena公司后来在1973年上市。 露得清Neutrogena与皮肤科医生的良好连结，赢得了大众的高度推崇及信任，Neutrogena也自此风行于全球85个国家。1994年Johnson & Johnson娇生公司将Neutrogena纳入旗下，在获得更多跨国企业资源的同时，Neutrogena仍然保留了她原有的品牌风格-Neutrogena way。我在竞争战略（1980年出版）一书中，提出了通行战略（generic strategies）概念成本领先、差异化和业务聚焦来表示行业中可选的战略定位。在

15、最简单和广泛层面上，通行战略仍然能有效地代表战略定位。例如，先锋集团就是成本领先战略的例子；宜家家居则专注于狭窄的客户群，采用的是以低成本为基础的业务聚焦战略；露得清公司则是业务聚焦兼差异化战略。定位的基点品类、需求和接触途径把对通行战略的理解提升到了更为深刻的水平。战略定位的基点首先，定位可以基于提供某行业的某个子类产品或服务。我把它称为基于品类的定位（variety-based positioning），因为这是基于产品或服务品类的选择而不是基于客户细分进行战略定位。捷飞络国际公司(Jiffy Lube International)就专营汽车润滑油，不提供其他的汽车维修与保养服务。定位的第

16、二个基点是满足某类特定客户群的大部分或者所有需求。我把它称为基于需求的定位（needs-based positioning），这和瞄准某个客户细分市场的传统概念相接近。当客户群各有不同的需求，而一套与竞争对手不同的运营活动能够最佳地满足这些需求时，基于需求的定位就成立。有些客户群比其他客户群对价格更敏感，需要不同的产品特性，需要不同量的信息、支持和服务。宜家家居的顾客就是这类顾客群的一个很好例子。宜家家居力求满足其目标客户的所有家具布置方面的需求，而不只是其中的某个子类。贝西默信托公司（Bessemer Trust Company）的目标客户，是那些可投资资产不少于500万美元的家庭，这类家庭

17、既想要储蓄资金，又想要积累财富。花旗银行（Citibank）的个人银行服务针对个人资产不低于25万美元的客户，他们与贝西默的客户正好相反，想要方便地得到贷款从高额抵押贷款到交易融资。定位的第三个基点是依据不同的接触途径细分客户。虽然这些客户的需求是相似的，但是接触他们的最佳运营活动配置具有竞争差异性。我把它称为基于接触途径的定位（access-based positioning）。接触途径可以根据客户地理位置或客户规模来设定，或者根据需要一套不同的运营活动才能最佳地接触到顾客的其它因素来设定。根据接触途径进行市场细分比前两种战略定位少见，相比之下也未被很好地理解。美国卡麦克院线（Carmike

18、 Cinemas）只在人口不到20万的小城镇运营电影院。在规模如此之小且不能承受大城市票价的市场中，卡麦克是如何实现赢利的呢？那就是通过一套能实现最低成本结构的运营活动。它通过标准化、低成本的影院设施为小城镇的观众提供服务，每一个影院仅需一名经理，而无需其他行政管理人员。此外，集中采购、廉价的租金和劳动力成本（由于影院都在小城镇）以及极低的经营管理费用（仅为2%，而行业平均水平为5%）也为卡麦克创造了优势。此外，在小社区中运营也让卡麦克可以采取一种更个人化的营销方式影院经理认识每一个主顾，并通过个人接触来提高上座率。持久的战略定位需要取舍取舍不仅使选择成为一种必要，而且还能为竞争对手重新定位和

19、骑墙（straddling）设置障碍。骑墙这希望在受益于成功的新的定位的同时，又能保持其现有的定位。它把新性能、新特点、新服务或新技术嫁接到原有的运营活动上。目标：打造医用清洁用品形象以露得清（Neutrogena）洗面皂为例，它的种类定位是提供一种对皮肤温和，不留残余物、酸碱度平衡的洗面皂。露得清有一支庞大的销售队伍去拜访皮肤科医生，因此其营销策略看上去更像是医药公司采用的，而非制皂商所为。它在医学杂志上刊登广告，向医生寄送直邮广告，参加医学会议，并且在自己的皮肤护理研究中心开展研究工作。为了强化定位，早期的露得清将通路集中在药房、不做价格促销，而且使用比较慢、比较贵的制程来凝固肥皂。在这样

20、定位选择下，露得清舍弃了许多消费者喜欢的香味与柔肤成分。它放弃了超市通路和价格促销可能带来的可观销售量。为了肥皂特色，它也牺牲了制造上的效率。在它的原始定位中，露得清做了这么多的取舍，而这些取舍也保护它远离竞争者的模仿。例如：象牙香皂，其定位是基本的、廉价的日用香皂，如果它想重新塑造其形象，使自己的名声与“疗效”卓著的露得清香皂相媲美，免不了会历尽艰难，付出很大很大的代价。配称推动竞争优势和可持续性定位选择不仅决定企业将开展哪些运营活动、如何配置各项活动，而且还决定各项活动之间如何关联。运营效益涉及如何在单项活动或单项职能中实现卓越，而战略是关于如何将所有活动整合在一起。配称的种类配称有三类，

21、不过它们并不相互排斥。第一层面的配称是让各运营活动（职能部门）与总体战略之间保持简单一致性（simple consistency）。例如，先锋集团围绕它的低成本战略开展各项活动。它将投资组合周转率降至最低，不需要支付高薪的资金经理人。它直接发行基金，因此避免了经纪人佣金。它限制广告数量，而主要依靠公关和口碑推荐。此外，先锋集团还把员工的奖金与节约成本挂钩起来。第二层面的配称是指活动之间相互加强。例如，露得清公司针对高级酒店营销自己的产品，这些酒店渴望向客人提供由皮肤专家推荐的香皂。酒店给予露得清使用自己原包装的特权，而要求其他香皂在包装上打上酒店的名字。一旦客人在某豪华酒店使用过露得清香皂，他

22、们就很可能会去药店购买，或者征询医生对这种香皂的看法。这样一来，露得清公司针对医生的营销活动和针对酒店的营销活动就起到了相互加强的作用，从而降低了公司的营销总成本。第三层面的配称突破了各项活动之间的相互加强，我把它称为投入最优化(optimization of effort)。Gap是一家休闲服饰零售商，它把店内产品的可获得性视为自己战略的最重要元素。Gap可以通过在店内囤货或者从仓库补货来保证产品的供应。Gap对这些活动的投入进行了优化，它几乎每天都从3个仓库为它的基本服饰进行补货，这样店内的囤货需要就被降至最低。Gap公司之所以强调从仓库补货，是因为它的商品策略是锁定在颜色品种相对较少的基

23、本货物上。其他具有比较性的零售商每年的库存周转是34次，而Gap达到7.5次。此外，由于Gap实施的是短周期服装更新（每68周就更新一次），所以从仓库快速补货还可以降低此项活动的成本。在所有影响战略的因素中，增长欲望对战略负面影响最大。取舍和限制初看起来会制约企业增长。比如，为一个顾客群服务而将其他顾客群排除在外，会对收入增长构成实际或意想的限制。面向广普顾客群的低价战略会导致失去那些注重产品性能和服务的顾客。实施差异化战略，又丢掉那些在乎价格的顾客。管理者常常难抵诱惑，想逐步突破以上那些限制，结果却使企业的战略定位更加模糊不清。露得清也落入了相同的陷阱。20世纪90年代初，它在美国的经销渠道

24、设置覆盖到了沃尔玛这样的大众化商家。在露得清这一品牌下，公司的产品种类不断扩展，连眼部卸妆液和洗发液都纳入其中。这些产品不仅没有什么独到之处，而且还稀释了公司的品牌价值，最终公司不得不转向价格战。追求增长的过程中出现的折中和前后不一致，将侵蚀企业最初的产品种类或目标客户带来的竞争优势。试图同时以多种方式展开竞争，会导致混乱，并且破坏组织的积极性和焦点。什么样的增长方式能维护并强化战略呢？一般来说，正确的增长之道在于深化既有的战略定位，而不是拓宽定位或采取折中行为。一种方式是寻求战略延伸，即利用既有的运营活动系统，为客户提供单独展开同类业务的竞争对手无法复制或者需要付出高昂代价才能复制的功能或服

25、务。换言之，管理者可以自问，由于既有活动的补充，哪些活动、哪些产品性能或哪种竞争形式是可行的或者可以因此降低成本。深化定位包括让企业的运营活动更独特，加强配称，并更好地向那些认可定位的客户宣传自己的战略。如果企业能在自己具有独特性的需求满足或者产品品类上进行渗透，就能比进入缺乏独特性的高增长领域获得更快的增长和更加丰厚的利润。（三）西南航空案例Business Strategy:Southwests business strategy concentrates on airports that are underutilized and close to metropolitan areas.

26、 The fleet of aircraft they use are fuel efficient 737s. Their service is based on frequent, on-time departures and low cost fares. The airline emphasizes point to point routes, with no central hub. Key to the success of Southwest is that they compete against surface transportation companies, r

27、ather than other airlines. In changing their business model, they changed their competitive threat.Competitive Advantage:Southwest has managed to stay ahead of the game and maintain a competitive advantage by focusing on 3 key areas:1. Salaries: Employees are paid a lower salary than competitor

28、s and work more hours. Southwest however offer collective rewards involving profit sharing and stock ownership. Pilots and flight attendants are paid by trip, with flight attendants the second highest paid group in the industry. Seniority brings higher salaries. The CEOs pay is one of the lowest in

29、Dallas. Southwest offers employees a discounted stock purchase programme in which 85-90% of employees own stock i.e. 12% of Southwests total share.2. Utilization: Each plane in the fleet flies extra flights per day, saving on maintenance and training costs. Utilization of cost effecti

30、ve revenue streams have been critical to their success. Southwest were one of the first airlines to have a website in early 1995. In 2006 70% of Southwests revenue were generated from bookings online.  Southwest gained a reputation for outside the box thinking and proactive risk management, inc

31、luding the use of fuel hedging to insulate against fuel price fluctuation. From a cost point of view, Southwest have maintained a cost per seat mile of $0.12, which is around 25% cheaper than competitors.  Aircraft turnaround time is 15 minutes, this is facilitated by multi tasking crews, with

32、pilots and air crew cleaning the plan while on the ground. On average there are 94 employees per aircraft in contrast to competitors who have 130, and the south west staff serve on average 2500 passengers per year compared to competitors 1000.3. Customer Service: Southwest still dominates the t

33、riple crown awards in that they deliver the best on time performance, fewest lost bags and fewest customer complaints. Fares are kept simple, with no interline connections however code share has been introduced in recent years.People:Central to Southwests success has been the people to run the airli

34、ne, in order to maintain their position, Southwest need to recruit the best to the industry. This is done through an extraordinarily selective process. Typically there are 200,000 applications for roles. Of these 35,000 are interviewed and 4,000 are hired. The focus of interviews is attitude and tea

35、mwork with an emphasis on peer recruiting. There is a preference for those without extensive industry experience, where nepotism is encouraged. Southwest was also one of the first companies to introduce employee referrals. Once in the door training takes over, where the emphasis is on doing things b

36、etter, faster, cheaper. In doing this each employee is expected to understand other colleagues jobs in order to delivery an outstanding customer experience, which in turn keeps the culture of South West alive.From a labor relations point of view, Southwest have an interesting model. It is the most u

37、nionized airline in the US with 84% membership. They have in place a 10 year agreement with emphasis in gaining stock rather than wages, there are no work rules in the union contract. Southwest has ranked in Fortunes Best Companies to work for in America (1st in 97, 98, 2nd in 99 and 4th&#

38、160;in 2000, however since then they have not entered).Conclusion:Southwest is a great case study of how to get employee buy in, to a growth developing business. The key to the success of the southwest model has been asset utilization and low variable costs, married with strong company culture to al

39、igning values, systems, structures and strategy. By doing this Southwest has been able to sustain competitive advantage by unleashing the potential in their workforce. Could this be developed and maintained in other organizations? I believe so.Southwest Airlines and Target PricingMost pricing strate

40、gists would agree that having a low price does not, in and of itself, constitute a competitive advantage.  In fact, thinking that low prices are always a good strategy for competition is deeply misguided.  However, at times, targeting low prices can lead to a strategic focus which delivers

41、 tremendous results.  For example, Ikea, Wal-Mart (WMT), and Southwest Airlines (LUV) all have low prices and profitably take market share.  In this article, we will examine the flaws of assuming low prices leads to a competitive advantage, then demonstrate how one firm, Southwes

42、t Airlines, redefined the product through target pricing to win the market profitably.Why Low Prices Alone Is Not a Competitive AdvantageIn studying competitive advantage, we have gone a long distance from Porters three generic strategies of niche, mass, and low-cost.  Modern competit

43、ive strategy will often examine firms from a resource based view.  According to the resource based view, competitive advantage derives from leveraging an inimitable resource to deliver value at a lower cost than the competitors.Price is a completely imitable resource.  Any company can matc

44、h the prices of its competitor if it so chooses.  Hence, arguing that a low price is a strategic resource, or that it leads to a competitive advantage in and of itself, is illogical.Observation supports the viewpoint that price is inherently imitable and therefore not a competitive advantage.&#

45、160; Though low prices may deliver a large market share, that market share usually comes at the cost of profits.  Given the choice between being big but unprofitable, and being small but profitable, a wise businessperson would choose the latter.Herb Kelleher, Former CEO, Southwest Airlines, sta

46、ted a similarly:  “Market Share has nothing to do with Profitability.  Market share says we just want to be big: we dont care if we make money doing it.  Thats what misled much of the airline industry for fifteen years after deregulation.  In order to get an additional 5% of the

47、market, some companies increased their cost 25%. Thats really incongruous if profitability is your purpose.”Likewise, Sergio Marchionne, the Chief Executive of Chrysler, noted, “Unprofitable volume is not volume I want We have a very good track record on how to destroy an industry run the plants jus

48、t for the hell of volume, and youre finished.”The Importance of the Marketing Orientation of the FirmWe should also note that Herb Kelleher was a master at achieving low prices.  Moreover, low prices are a core part of Southwest Airlines strategy.  It has permeated and stayed with Southwes

49、t Airlines for over 4 decades and has delivered both growth and market share.To make low prices work towards a firms advantage, the firm must redefine the product using the marketing orientation.According to the marketing orientation, firms exist to serve customer needs profitably.  This market

50、ing orientation is in contrast with the production and sales orientation of the firm.· In the production orientation, firms attract customers and succeed because they can produce the product.  However, in todays capital market, this claim is relatively ridiculous.  Anyone with capital

51、 can start an airline, and there are enough people with enough capital to do so.  Hence, owning and utilizing the means of production alone doesnt deliver a competitive advantage or ensure success.· In the sales orientation, firms attract customers and succeed because they can advertise an

52、d sell to convince customers to buy.  But again, in todays marketing communication markets, anyone can hire a good marketing communications team to produce a catchy advertisement and get the word out regarding a product.  Hence, selling and marketing communications alone doesnt deliver a c

53、ompetitive advantage or ensure success.· In the marketing orientation of the firm, every aspect of the firm is focused on serving a specific customer need, and serving that need better than all alternatives.  Rather than relying solely on firm directed communications, the firm will encoura

54、ge peer to peer communications between customers to get the word out regarding the product.  Because the firm is serving a specific need better than its competition, customers will gladly exhibit both loyalty and a willingness to promote that firm.  This leads to success, but only as long

55、as the firm can continue to satisfy that specific customer need better than the alternatives.   In this sense, the strategic resource of a firm is its customers and its ability to construct an operation which effectively fits together to serve those customers specific need.The Marketing Or

56、ientation and Value Based PricingThe pricing difference between these production and sales orientations versus the marketing orientation were well captured by Nagel & Holden in discussing the difference between cost-based pricing and value-based pricing.Cost-based pricing derives from a producti

57、on and/or sales orientation, wherein the firm begins with its product, determined the cost to produce, adds an acceptable markup, and then uses selling pressure to get customers to buy.Cost-Based PricingProduct >> Cost >> Price >> Value >> CustomersIn contrast, value based pr

58、icing begins by seeking to understand the value customers demand and the price they are willing to pay to achieve that set of benefits.  Only after the price is determined does the firm then work to uncover means to produce the product at a cost below the willingness to pay of its customers.Val

59、ue Based PricingCustomers >> Value >> Price >> Cost >> ProductIn the marketing orientation of the firm, the firm exists only to serve a customer need profitably.  If it cannot serve that need profitably, the firm will either not enter that industry or choose to exit the

60、industry if it is already in it.Target PricingIn keeping with the marketing orientation of the firm, the price of a product will guide the definition and development of the product.  This is sometimes known as target pricing, where the price becomes the target and the product is then designed to fit that target profitably.To enable a product to hit its p