Features of academic writing

1、Features of academic writingComplexityWritten language is relatively more complex than spoken language (Biber, 1988; Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999; Chafe, 1982; Cook, 1997; Halliday,1989).Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language. It has more subordinate c

2、lauses, more that/to complement clauses, more long sequences of prepositional phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives than spoken language.Written texts are shorter and have longer, more complex words and phrases. They have more nominalisations, more noun based phrases, and more lexic

3、al variation. Written texts are lexically dense compared to spoken language - they have proportionately more lexical words than grammatical words.The following features are common in academic written texts:Subordinate clauses/embedding,Complement clauses,Sequences of prepositional phrases,Participle

4、s,Passive verbs,Lexical density,Lexical complexity,Nominalisation,Noun-based phrases,Modification of noun-phrases,Attributive adjectivesSubordinate clauses/embeddingThere are several factorswhich help to prolong this period to perhaps three or four times that in the male.The other wayin which the ec

5、onomic aspects of military expenditure were presentedwas in the form of the public expenditure costs.The family establishes a variety of bases for refugeswhich seem to be used at different times of the year.Complement clausesthat-clauses:This conforms conveniently with Maslows (1970) claimthat human

6、 motivation is related to a hieracrchy of human needs.It followsthat if the Labour Government is to secure acceptance of its economic package, it has to secure the support of MPs from either the Liberal or the Conservative party.to-clauses:Britains apparent abilityto rally Commonwealth support at Ch

7、icagoseemed to the Americans to be evidence of Britains continued world power.of+ing-clauses:The possibilityof increasing dollar receiptswas coupled with a belief that Africa could be a strategic centre for British power.Sequences of prepositional phrasesSequences of prepositional phrases are common

8、 in academic English.This article analyses the constitutional aspectsbehindthe formationofthe first and second National Governments, examininginparticular the roleofthe kinginthe formationofthe two governments.ParticiplesFormal written English uses verbs less than spoken English.-edand-ingparticiple

9、s allow verbs to be used nominally or adjectively.Similar temptations overcame philosophers concernedwith establishinga secure base for individual responsibilityThe Egyptians regarded time as a succession ofrecurring phases.Doubts as to the proper division of property at death, as well as rights bet

10、ween partnersliving together, were resolved by having legal rules prescribing a formula.It was only to be tolerated in acontrolledandformalised context.A frequentchange foundin proper names is syllable loss.Passive verbsIn spoken English we often use a subject such as people, somebody, they, we, or

11、you even when we do not know who the agent is. In formal English, particularly writing, we often prefer to use a passive.Compare:Theyre installing the new computer system next month.The new computer system is being installed next month. (more formal)Try these exercises:Exercise 1,Exercise 2,Exercise

12、 3Lexical densityWritten English generally has a much denser pattern of words, it is more lexically dense. If we define lexical density as the number of content words in a clause, then written English has a higher lexical density than spoken English (Halliday, 1996, p. 347).For example, the written

13、text:Obviously the government is frightened of union reaction to its move to impose proper behaviour on unions.is more lexically dense than the spoken version:Obviously the government is frightened how the unions willreact if it tries to make them behave properly.Lexical complexityAdding affixes to

14、existing words (the base) to form new words is common in academic English. Prefixes are added to the front of the base (likedislike), whereas suffixes are added to the end of the base (activeactivate). Prefixes usually do not change the class of the base word, but suffixes usually do change the clas

15、s of the word.The most common prefixes used to form new verbs in academic English are:re-, dis-, over-, un-, mis-, out-. The most common suffixes are:-ise, -en, -ate, -(i)fy. By far the most common affix in academic English is-ise.e.g. verbs + prefixverbPrefixMeaningExamplesre-again or backrestructu

16、re, revisit, reappear, rebuild, refinancedis-reverses the meaning of the verbdisappear, disallow, disarm, disconnect, discontinueover-too muchoverbook, oversleep, overworkun-reverses the meaning of the verbunbend, uncouple, unfastenmis-badly or wronglymislead, misinform, misidentifyout-more or bette

17、r than othersoutperform, outbidbe-make or causebefriend, belittleco-Togetherco-exist, co-operate, co-ownde-do the opposite ofdevalue, deselectfore-earlier, beforeforeclose, foreseeinter-Betweeninteract, intermix, interfacepre-Beforepre-expose, prejudge, pretestsub-under/belowsubcontract, subdividetr

18、ans-across, overtransform, transcribe, transplantunder-not enoughunderfund, undersell, undervalue, underdevelope.g. Suffix used to form verbs with the meaning cause to be.SuffixExample-isestabilise, characterise, symbolise, visualise, specialise-atedifferentiate, liquidate, duplicate, fabricate-fycl

19、assify, exemplify, simplify, justify-enawaken, fasten, shorten, moistenThe most common prefixes used to form new nouns in academic English are:co-andsub-. The most common suffixes are:-tion, -ity,-er, -ness, -ism, -ment, -ant, -ship, -age, -ery. By far the most common noun affix in academic English

20、is-tion.e.g. noun+prefixnounPrefixMeaningExamplesanti-Againstanticlimax, antidote, antithesisauto-Selfautobiography, automobilebi-Twobilingualism, biculturalism, bi-metalismco-Jointco-founder, co-owner, co-descendantcounter-Againstcounter-argument, counter-example, counter-proposaldis-the converse o

21、fdiscomfort, dislikeex-Formerex-chairman, ex-hunterhyper-Extremehyperinflation, hypersurfacein-the converse ofinattention, incoherence, incompatibilityin-Insideinpatient,inter-Betweeninteraction, inter-change, interferencekilo-Thousandkilobytemal-Badmalfunction, maltreatment, malnutritionmega-Millio

22、nmegabytemis-Wrongmisconduct, misdeed, mismanagementmini-Smallmini-publication, mini-theorymono-Onemonosyllable, monograph, monogamyneo-Newneo-colonialism, neo-impressionismout-Separateoutbuilding,poly-Manypolysyllablepseudo-Falsepseudo-expertre-Againre-organisation, re-assessment, re-examinationsem

23、i-Halfsemicircle, semi-darknesssub-Belowsubset, subdivisionsuper-more than, abovesuperset, superimposition, superpowerssur-over and abovesurtaxtele-Distanttelecommunications,tri-Threetripartismultra-Beyondultrasoundunder-below, too littleunderpayment, under-development, undergraduatevice-Deputyvice-

24、presidente.g. Suffix added to a verb (V), noun (N) or adjective (A)nounSuffixMeaningExamples-tionaction/instance of V-ingalteration, demonstration-itystate or quality of being Aability, similarity, responsibility-erperson who V-ssomething used for V-ingperson concerned with Nadvertiser, drivercomput

25、er, silencerastronomer, geographer-nessstate or quality of being Adarkness, preparedness, consciousness-ismdoctrine of NMarxism, Maoism, Thatcherism-mentaction/instance of V-ingdevelopment, punishment, unemployment-ant/-entperson who V-sassistant, consultant, student-shipstate of being Nfriendship,

26、citizenship, leadership-agecollection of Naction/result of Vbaggage, plumagebreakage, wastage, package-ery/-ryaction/instance of V-ingplace of V-ingbribery, robbery, miseryrefinery, bakeryMany adjectives are formed from a base of a different class with a suffix (e.g.-less, -ous). Adjectives can also

27、 be formed from other adjectives, especially by the negative prefixes (un-, in- and non-).The most common suffixes are-al, -ent, -ive, -ous, -ful, -less.e.g. Suffix added to verbs or nounsadjectiveSuffixExamples-alcentral, political, national, optional, professional-entdifferent, dependent, excellen

28、t-iveattractive, effective, imaginative, repetitive-ouscontinuous, dangerous, famous-fulbeautiful, peaceful, careful-lessendless, homeless, careless, thoughtless-abledrinkable, countable, avoidable,e.g. adjective + negativeadjectivePrefixExamplesun-unfortunate, uncomfortable, unjustim-/in-/ir-/il-im

29、mature, impatient, improbable, inconvenient, irreplaceable, illegalnon-non-fiction, non-political, non-neutraldis-disloyal, dissimilar, dishoneste.g. base with both prefix and suffix-able-tion-tive-ment-arun-uncomfortableunavoidableunforgettableunimaginativemis-misinformationmisjudgementmismanagemen

30、tre-recoverablerecyclableReformulationreproductiverealignmentrepaymentin-irreplaceableincoordinationinattentioninactiveinoperativedis-Disconnectiondisappointmentsemi-semiconductivesemi-circularNominalisationFormal written English uses nouns more than verbs. For example, judgement rather than judge,

31、development rather than develop, admiration rather than admire.Instead of:This information enables us to formulate precise questions.we would write:This information enables the formulation of precise questions.More examples are:There appeared to be evidence of differentialtreatmentof children.This i

32、s reflected in ouradmirationfor people who have made something of their lives, sometimes against great odds, and in our somewhat disappointedjudgmentof those who merely drift through life.All airfields in the country would be nationalised, and the government would continue with thedevelopmentof new

33、aircraft as recommended by the Brabazon Committee.Associated with nominalisation is the occurrence of prepositional phrases, introduced byof:judgmentofthosetreatmentofchildrendevelopmentofnew aircraft-tionis the most common suffix used in this way. For example:alteration, resignation.However others

34、are:-ityability, similarity, complexity;-nessblindness, darkness, preparedness;-mentdevelopment, encouragement;-shipfriendship;-agemileage;-eryrobbery, bribery;-alarrival;-anceassistance, resemblance.Noun-based phrasesFormal written English uses nouns more than verbs.One example is:Like all other fo

35、rms of life, we human beings are the product ofevolution.Like all other forms of life, we human beings are the product ofhow we have evolved.The noun evolution is preferred to the verb evolve and the wh clause.Another example is:Premack used a set of plastic chips to teach a chimpanzee named Sarahth

36、e meaning of a set of symbols.Premack used a set of plastic chips to teach a chimpanzee named Sarahwhat a set of symbols mean.The meaning of the symbols is preferred to what the symbols meanTry this exercise:Exercise 4Modification of noun-phrasesWritten English is lexically dense - there is a higher

37、 proportion of content words per clause. This can be done by modification of noun-phrases.premodifier + nounadjective -theconstitutionalaspectsed-participle -abalancedbudget, from theconfusedevents of 19-24 August, theemittedlighting-participle -growingproblem, onestrikingfeature of the years 1929-3

38、1,existingstructuresnoun -marketforces,cabinetappointmentsnoun + post modifierrelative clause -studentswho have no previous experienceto-clauses -the solutionto the problem of inflation,the questionto be debateding-clauses -a brakeconsisting of a drum divided into twelve compartmentsed-clauses -cano

39、espreserved by a hard plaster,a brake consisting of a drumdivided into twelve compartments,the curveshownprepositional phrase -we need to bring to the box a special toolwith a ready-compressed springadverb (phrase) -the roadback, the peopleoutsideadjective (phrase) -varietiescommon in India, the fes

40、tivalproper, somethingdifferentAttributive adjectivesAdjectives can be used either attributively (e.g. thebighouse) or predicatively (e.g. the house isbig). Attributive adjectives are common in academic English.Witheconomicspecialisation and the development ofexternal economiclinkages, division of labour intensifies, a merchant class is added to thepoliticalelite, andselectivemigration st