语法课件(1)概论

1、 One OneWord &Phrase &SentenceWord &Phrase &Sentencebilingual * Never Never be rather meticulous about grammar! Supporting details: 1) The Chinese learn Chinese. 2) Sense of language But how to sense and summarize rules (language sense)?1) Context; situationI Why should one learn gra

2、mmar?2) Use to learn2) Use to learn语感来自语言使用体验，来自大量的语言接触。语感来自语言使用体验，来自大量的语言接触。语感就是概括不同的语法规则，还包括如何使用语语感就是概括不同的语法规则，还包括如何使用语言的规则。语法知识弹性较大，而且反映英语语言的规则。语法知识弹性较大，而且反映英语语言规律的语法规则很多，极少没有例外。言规律的语法规则很多，极少没有例外。所以我所以我们仍要学一点英语语法。在我们中国，百年都没们仍要学一点英语语法。在我们中国，百年都没有营造出正常情况下用正式英语交际的大氛围和有营造出正常情况下用正式英语交际的大氛围和小氛围，所以难以在投入

3、产出比符合经济效益的小氛围，所以难以在投入产出比符合经济效益的前提下培养出一定的英语语感。前提下培养出一定的英语语感。 II How to learn grammar?II How to learn grammar?1. Context 1. Context 对大多数语法规则，应尽可能结合语境去学，把规则对大多数语法规则，应尽可能结合语境去学，把规则剥离出来单独操练，就会产生副作用，导致剥离出来单独操练，就会产生副作用，导致 中式英语的发生。例如中式英语的发生。例如，英语冠词我们中国人很难学好，但英美人说英语就很少用错，是，英语冠词我们中国人很难学好，但英美人说英语就很少用错，是因为他们所接触

4、到的冠词总是伴随着名词，而且连同上下文一起识因为他们所接触到的冠词总是伴随着名词，而且连同上下文一起识记，记， 在反复接触的过程中不断强化正确用法，在语言的使用体验中在反复接触的过程中不断强化正确用法，在语言的使用体验中打造了冠词和名词结合的语感。而我们中国人学冠词，多半将冠词打造了冠词和名词结合的语感。而我们中国人学冠词，多半将冠词视为独立词类来学，靠理据或规则去指导使用。然而，如前面所说视为独立词类来学，靠理据或规则去指导使用。然而，如前面所说，规则都有例外，而冠词使用的例外又特别多，用还是不用，经常，规则都有例外，而冠词使用的例外又特别多，用还是不用，经常说不出理由，犯错就成了常态。在这

5、种情况下，与其记规则找理据说不出理由，犯错就成了常态。在这种情况下，与其记规则找理据，不如加大听读量，培养语感去减少错误。如，不如加大听读量，培养语感去减少错误。如the sun the sun 当一个词来记当一个词来记。通过伴有丰富语境的听和读，去发现语言规律，学习效果要好于。通过伴有丰富语境的听和读，去发现语言规律，学习效果要好于学外语光靠逻辑推理和运用语法规则。脱离语境去学习语法，很容学外语光靠逻辑推理和运用语法规则。脱离语境去学习语法，很容易导致合乎语法规则但英美人根本不说的表达式。易导致合乎语法规则但英美人根本不说的表达式。Features of grammarFeatures of

6、 grammar语法规则有两个显著特征语法规则有两个显著特征: :一是生成性一是生成性derivablederivable. .所谓生成性，是指一些规则具有所谓生成性，是指一些规则具有生成无穷无尽句子的潜力，其中只有一些有限的部分在生成无穷无尽句子的潜力，其中只有一些有限的部分在现实生活中使用现实生活中使用. .二是有例外二是有例外exceptions exceptions 这样就会造成一个现象这样就会造成一个现象: :合合 “法法”的未必能用的未必能用, ,能用的未能用的未必合必合 “法法”有些句子虽然看起来不合语法，违反了有些句子虽然看起来不合语法，违反了语法规则，却在现实中被普遍使用。语

7、法规则，却在现实中被普遍使用。ExamplesExamples：在一次晚会上，女主人见自己的朋友带来了她们共同的朋友在一次晚会上，女主人见自己的朋友带来了她们共同的朋友HarryHarry，感到格外，感到格外高兴，说高兴，说I Im so glad you could bring Harry! m so glad you could bring Harry! 这是一句既得体又合乎英语语法这是一句既得体又合乎英语语法的英语句子，若按英语语法造句，表达相同的意思，女主人可用下列任何一的英语句子，若按英语语法造句，表达相同的意思，女主人可用下列任何一个句子，不仅意思相同而且语法都正确，但是，在现实生

8、活中，有哪位英美个句子，不仅意思相同而且语法都正确，但是，在现实生活中，有哪位英美人这样说话呢？人这样说话呢？That Harry could be brought by you makes me glad.That you could bring Harry gladdens me so.Your having been able to bring Harry makes me so glad.I am so glad Harrys being brought by you was possible.The fact that Harry could be brought by you ca

9、uses to be so glad.I am in a glad state because you could bring Harry.Because of your having been able to bring Harry I am in a very high state of gladness.Summary 人类学习和使用语言不是从语法开始的。语法能力只能从语言使用的体验中逐渐培养出来的。语法是一柄双刃剑，既可以帮助我们使用规范的语言，同时也可以造出合乎语法但英语本族语的人不说的句子。从这个角度看，对外语学习者来说，学习语法可以说是一柄双刃剑。这就是学习语法的副作用，但当使用

10、外语有一些感觉后再学语法，就可以抵消语法的副作用，同时更好的发挥语言规范使用的功能。在外语使用中语法只是一根拐杖，能独立走路了是可以扔掉的。学语法的目的是为了帮助学好外语，是为了帮助学会使用外语，而不是学语法就是学外语。moremore只有那些经过训练的语言学家才能把我们头脑中的只有那些经过训练的语言学家才能把我们头脑中的隐形语法知识深挖出来隐形语法知识深挖出来, ,变成明示的语法规则变成明示的语法规则, ,供供大家学习使用大家学习使用. . 语法，实际上就是给你语言整体语法，实际上就是给你语言整体上的语感（规则），既给你能解释语言现象的上的语感（规则），既给你能解释语言现象的鱼鱼，又教你如何

11、用语感去，又教你如何用语感去钓语言深层的鱼钓语言深层的鱼。 语言是鱼，语境是水，语言应结合语境来学。语言是鱼，语境是水，语言应结合语境来学。more对于现阶段的我们对于现阶段的我们, , 学习语法的目的就是整学习语法的目的就是整理理 归纳在中学阶段所学语法知识归纳在中学阶段所学语法知识; ;消化并提消化并提升中学所学语法知识升中学所学语法知识, ,使之成为语言运用的使之成为语言运用的理论准则理论准则 ; ;系统了解英语内在结构的基本特系统了解英语内在结构的基本特点点, , 对英语语法有更为完整系统的理解和认对英语语法有更为完整系统的理解和认识识, ,形成融会贯通的整体概念形成融会贯通的整体概念

12、. . more 英语语法书很多，学习英语语法的方法也不少。学好一英语语法书很多，学习英语语法的方法也不少。学好一样东西，本没有绝对好的方法。事实上，每个人可以根样东西，本没有绝对好的方法。事实上，每个人可以根据自己的实际情况，在不断尝试中摸索出适合自己的方据自己的实际情况，在不断尝试中摸索出适合自己的方法。学好语法的关键是法。学好语法的关键是 多接触，在与人互动中多体验多接触，在与人互动中多体验语言的使用，多记住一些语言固定搭配。语言的使用，多记住一些语言固定搭配。 不管用什么方法学英语语法，进而学英语语言，首先要不管用什么方法学英语语法，进而学英语语言，首先要有整体语感，要学会归纳和演绎，

13、由此及彼；其次要借有整体语感，要学会归纳和演绎，由此及彼；其次要借助对母语的了解，琢磨汉语和英语的异同之处，转而进助对母语的了解，琢磨汉语和英语的异同之处，转而进行两种语言之间的由此及彼。行两种语言之间的由此及彼。Definition of grammar Grammar: structural system of a language.The grammar of the English language is organized into 5 ranks. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of i

14、mmediate lower rank.Grammatical Hierarchy: 0.1 Morphemes: the lowest rank 0.2 Words 0.3 Phrases 0.4 Clauses0.5 Sentences: highest rankMorphemes: the minimum or smallest unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech.They fall into two categories: free morphemes bound morphemes a free morpheme

15、has complete meaning; it can stand by itself as a simple word.1) Simple word: boy, girl, desk, give, take, etc.2) (Used as ) root + affix derivativeKind: kindness, unkind, unkindness, kindlyFriend: friendly, friendship, friendless, unfriendly, unfriendliness3) Used with other free morphemes compound

16、 wordBook: bookmark, bookworm, bookshop, bookstallTake: intake, take-home(n. ; adj), take-over, takeoff, takeaway, undertake扣税等后的实得工资 They are mostly affixes. meaningful but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other form. Therefore , a bound morpheme cannot stand by i

17、tself; it only exists as an inflectional 屈折词缀or derivational affix派生词缀.Inflectional affix: 名词复数标记-s/-es; 名词属格标记-s; 第三人称动词单数现在时标记-s/-es; 动词过去时标记-ed; 动词-ed分词和-ing分词标记; 形容词和副词比较级和最高级的标记-er, -est, 等等.Affix: prefix; suffixAffix + root derivativeMore examples anti-war Marxist unluckypostwar movement co-ex

18、istenceAllomorphs: the same morpheme in different contexts may take different phonological or orthographical forms. The variants of the same morpheme are called “allomorphs”词素变体. 1) spelling: such as negative prefix of adjectives, in-, im-, il-, ir- inactive; immature; illegal; irrational incoherent

19、; immortal; illogical; irregular2) phonetics: cats -/s/; dogs -/z/, horses-/iz/The word is composed of one or more than one morpheme.Words can be classified in two ways: Classification in terms of word formation: simple words. derivatives and compounds.2) Classification in terms of grammatical funct

20、ion In terms of grammatical function, words can be divided into two main groups: notional word实词实词and form word（虚词）（虚词）Notional word: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numeralsForm word :prepositions, articles, conjunctions, interjections 实词： 单独担任一种成分或几种成分虚词：不能单独一个担任一种成分，更不能担任几种成分A word w

21、ith different qualities，(一词多性）different stresses, different pronunciation of some letters, different uses, and thus different functions in a sentence. Some words with single quality(一词一性），but many meanings (connotation).See Meaning of Words2. “to” in infinitives Infinitive signals, not belong to any

22、 one of the ten categories mentioned above3. Generally, nouns, verbs and adjectives are large in amount, but not enough in practical use. Word conversion(词性转换） can help a lot.通过词性转换，某些词的数量大大的增加了，如果不用词性转换这个办法来增加单词数量，有一些概念无法用英语表达出来；因为有了词性转换，英语的广度、深度和难度都大大增加了，英语难精，这是主要原因之一。More on next pageConversion c

23、an be done many times. 有些词进行了词性转换后还可再次转换。Eg. Eg. Bite v.t. “Bite v.t. “咬咬”“叮叮”“蛰蛰”Biting adj. “Biting adj. “咬人的咬人的”“叮人的叮人的” “蛰痛的蛰痛的” “刺痛的刺痛的” “辛辣的辛辣的”Bitingly adv. “Bitingly adv. “刺痛地刺痛地” “辛辣地辛辣地”A mosquito A mosquito bitesbites his face. his face.A A bitingbiting mosquito was on his face. mosquito

24、was on his face.Dont speak Dont speak bitinglybitingly. . 不要出口伤人不要出口伤人The phrase is composed of one or more than one word.Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head.The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in whi

25、ch the words are organized.A phrase with a noun as its head.General pattern:determiner + premodifier + noun + postmodifier Incumbent president在职总统Men of the hour风云人物A phrase with a main verb as its headsimple or complexA simple phrase: a main verb or “modifier + main verb”A complex verb phrase: a ma

26、in verb preceded by an auxiliary(or auxiliaries) (+modifier)Teach EnglishWill hear a relay report (传达报告）Be watching TVHave been sentenced to three years imprisonmentA phrase with a verb -ing, -ed or to infinitive forms as its head1. Saying yes and meaning no口是心非（的）Seeking illegal petty gains手脚不干净（的）

27、Resting without worries高枕无忧（的）Sharing weal and woe and standing together through thick and thin患难与共，风雨同舟2. (Money) earned through hard toil(被）用血汗挣来的 unprecedented in the history史无前例的Stopped by neither wind nor rain3， to act according to actual circumstances看菜吃饭，量体裁衣To cut it clean一刀两断To ask a tiger

28、for its skin与虎谋皮To disown all ones relatives and friends六亲不认A phrase with an adjective as its headGeneral pattern: (modifier+) adjective (+postmodifier/complementation)Full of confidencePopular for a while风行一时（的）Destitute of shame寡廉鲜耻（的）A phrase with an adverb as its headGeneral pattern: (modifier+)

29、 adverb (+postmodifier)Equally firmly毫不示弱（地）Roundaboutly in speaking说话拐弯抹角（地）Nowhere to be foundSlow in walkingA phrase with a preposition as its headGeneral pattern: (modifier+) preposition + complementation Beneath the contempt of the discerning 不值识者一笑Beyond mens power非人力所能及After surviving a great

30、 disaster大难不死Like a conquering hero不可一世One or more than one phraseOne or more than one phraseStructurally a sequence of phrases and Structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + logically a construction of “subject + predicate”.predicate”.1) Independent and dependent

31、clause 1) Independent and dependent clause 2) Simple and complex clauses 2) Simple and complex clauses 3) Main and subordinate clauses3) Main and subordinate clauses4) Finite and non-finite clauses4) Finite and non-finite clauses5) Verbless clauses5) Verbless clausesIn terms of grammatical function,

32、 a clause can be independent or dependent.Independent clause: a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance.He knows everything about it.Some of your answers were correct, but I do not remember which.Dependent clause: a clause which forms only part of another clause or of a phras

33、e.I dont think he knows everything about it.I do not remember which of your answers were correct.独立分句； 从属分句Simple clause: a clause consists of only one construction of “subject + predicate”!an independent clause = simple clauseIt is not true. (独立简单分句） !an independent complex clause = a complex claus

34、e What you said is not true.（独立复杂分句）He said that it was not true.(从属简单分句）He complained that what you said was not true.（从属复杂分句）简简单单分分句；句；复复杂杂分分句句In a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subor

35、dinate clause.He complained that what you said was not true.主句和从句主句和从句Subordinate clauseMain clauseSubordinate clauseMain clauseA finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator(All the examples mentioned above are finite clauses.)A non-finite clause is a clause wi

36、th a non-finite verb phrase（非谓语动词） as its predicator.I signed the paper to get the license.Cant you recall telling me that story last week?The man, wearing such dark glasses, obviously could not see clearly.Covered with confusionCovered with confusion, they apologized abjectly.The discussion complet

37、ed, the chairman adjourned the meeting for half an hour. (Nominative Absolute construction独立主格结构；nominative Absolute Participial Construction独立分词结构）限定分句、非限定分句A clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb elementA construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element Hungry a

38、nd exhausted, the climbers returned.Confident of the justice of their cause, they agreed to put their case before the arbitration panel. (仲裁小组).One of the most popular tourist sites in Italy, Pompeii was viewed by nearly two million visitors last year.无动词分句无动词分句,实际上是省略了主语和谓语动词的分句结构实际上是省略了主语和谓语动词的分句结

39、构.The highest rank of grammatical unitThe highest rank of grammatical unitBased on one or more than one clauseBased on one or more than one clauseThe basic linguistic unit of The basic linguistic unit of connected discourseconnected discourseIt can stand alone and perform a It can stand alone and pe

40、rform a function in social communication.function in social communication. Thus, the definition of a sentence: Thus, the definition of a sentence: a a grammatical unit that can stand by grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicational itself and perform a communicational disco

41、urses. discourses. A full sentence (mostly used in formal speech and writing) : a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. (The sentences mentioned above are all full sentences)A minor sentence( extensively used in informal discourses): a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and sit

42、uations can stand by itself and perform a communicative functionExamples 完完全全句句和和不不完完全全句句1. Some elliptical sentencesA: When did he arrive?B: Last night.A: Who called this morning?B: Mr. Jones.2. Dependent on specific contexts and situations, it can stand by itself and perform a communicative functi

43、onNo smoking!No admittance except on business! 闲人免进Fire！Help！A simple sentence: a sentence that comprises only one independent clause.A compound sentence: two or more coordinated independent clausesA complex sentence: an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its element(s)A c

44、ompound-complex sentence: two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause简单句, 并列句, 复杂句,并列复杂句A simple sentence A simple sentence 简单句contains only one independent clause and no subordinate clauses. 只包含一个主谓结构，句子各成分都用单词或短语表示，It may, however, contain a compound subject or a c

45、ompound predicate and any number of modifiers other than a subordinate clause.必须：1.包含至少一个动词和一个主语（主语可以是表明的或暗示的， 像在祈使句中：Think more! 2. 表达一个完整的意思。大致有以下几种句型：1) 隐含主语+动词： -V: Go!2) 单个主语+单个动词：S+V: (1) He came. (2) The chicken crossed the road.3) 多个主语+单个动词： SSSSSSSS + V: (1)Thomas and Celement often learn f

46、rom and help each other. (Coordinate subject and coordinate predicate) (2)The President, his wife, members of the Cabinet, the white House Staff, twenty reporters and some body guards have gone on a picnic.4) 单个主语+ 多个动词： S + VVVVVVV: I enjoy playing tennis and look forward to it every weekend. (coor

47、dinate predicate)5) 多个主语+ 多个动词： SS+ VVV: My friends and I play tennis and go bowling every weekend. (coordinate subject)另外：They have had many trials and many great joys. (coordinate object) He was an honest and intelligent student. (coordinate attribute)A compound sentence 并列句contains two or more in

48、dependent clauses together in any of the following three ways. 两个或多个互不依存的主谓结构；通常由并列连词连接或由分号隔开。1) By a coordinating conjunction, such as and, or, but, for, so, yet, eitheror; neithernor; not onlybut also.a: George has applied for a scholarship, and Diane has requested financial aid. (additional ideas

49、 related to first idea)b: Students may live in the dormitories, or they may live at home. (choice of two possibilities)c: Gerry has completed two math courses, but he must still take calculus微积分. (contrast with first course) (to be continued)d: Ron completed his homework early, so he decided to go t

50、o the party. (result of first clause)e: Foreign students must take English classes, for they must be able to communicate easily in speaking and writing. (reason for first clause)f: Many students do not like to study for tests, nor do they like to write term papers. (negative choice in both clauses)2

51、) By a sentence connector2) By a sentence connector 连接副词 常与分号连用，也可用于句子其他地方。The independent clauses of a compound sentence can also be jointed by a sentence connector such as furthermore, however, furthermore, however, otherwise and therefore.otherwise and therefore. They are used frequently in forma

52、l writing to connect long clauses. The sentence connector used to link the ideas of the two independent clauses in a compound sentence shows a logical relationship between the idea expressed in the first clause and the idea expressed in the second clause. (examples on next page)For example,Some peop

53、le are using bicycles for transportation; ; furthermore,furthermore, others are joining car-pools or taking public vehicles to get to their destinations. Junior colleges offer preparation for the professions, business, and industry； moreovermoreover, students may prepare for transfer to a university

54、 or college. (addition)Many junior colleges do not provide a hospital; ; howeverhowever, , they provide a small clinic. (contrast)Students must take the final exam; ; otherwiseotherwise, , they may be given the final grade of Incomplete. (choice)You can receive individual guidance from your counselo

55、r； thereforetherefore, , you should take advantage of this service. (result)3) By a semicolon3) By a semicolonA semicolon is used between the main clauses of a compound sentence when they are not joined by one of the coordinating conjunctions as mentioned above. In weight, or length, a semicolon is

56、more than a comma and less than a period. The period separates sentences, while the semicolon separates main clauses within a sentence.Examples:A: I enjoy playing tennis; ; I hate playing golf.B: Some are walking by the lake; ; others are sitting on benches and chatting.C: You can come here by bike; ;