语言学考试总结

1、Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.The design feature of language: arbitrariness, duality, creativity,displacement.注意 arbitrariness, duality 这两个。Arbitrariness means the forms of linguistic signs bears no natural relationship to their meaning. For instance, we

2、 cannot explain why a book is called a /buk/ and a pen a /pen/. 还有三个特点，看一下。Main branches of linguistics: Phonetics(语音学 )， Phonology(音系学)， Morphology(形态学 )， Syntax（句法学），Semantics（语义学），Pragmatics（语用学）Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words.Syntax is about principles of forming

3、and understanding correct English sentences.Macrolinguistics( 宏观语言学 )- Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）注意定义 (investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition forexample) ， Sociolinguistics（ 社 会语 言 学 ）， Anthropologicallinguistics(人类语言学 )，

4、Computational linguistics(计算机语言学).Important distinctions in linguistics: ( 理解 )Descriptive vs. Prescriptive (描写式 /规定式 ): the distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Synchronic vs. Diachronic: (共时 /历时 ): synchronic description takes a fixed instant as its

5、point of observation; diachronic linguistics is study of a language through the course of its history.Langue vs. Parole（ language/ speaking语言 /言语） : the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistic.Competence vs. Performance (语言能力 /语言运用 ): a language users unde

6、rlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence, and performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation.Phonetics（语音学） studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.The three branches of Phonetics：Articulatory Phonetics(发音语音学 ) 发

7、展最成熟，Acoustic Phonetics（声学语音学） ，Auditory Phonetics（听觉语音学）Phonology（音系学） studies the rules governing the structure,distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of thesyllables.IPA-International Phonetic AlphabetConsonants(辅音 )： the Manner of Articulation( 发音方式 ) 、thePlace of Articulati

8、on（发音部位）（这部分理解，各考一个）看课本 35 页到 37 页辅音和元音的发音规则表发音方式：（八种）Stop/Plosive(塞音 /爆破音 )： Complete closure of the articulators(发音器官 ) is involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouth. /p, b, t, d, k, g/Nasal (鼻音 nasal stop) ：The air is stopped in the oral cavity(口腔 )but the soft palate （软腭） is

9、down so that it can go out throughthe nasal cavity（鼻腔）/m, n, n/.Fricative （摩擦音）：A fricative is produced when there is close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed(阻碍 ) and turbulent( 不稳定的 ) airflow isproduced. /f, v,Approximant (近音 )：This is an articulation i

10、n which one articulatoris close to another, but without the vocal tract（声道） being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. /w, r, j/Lateral (边音 )： The obstruction of the airstream is at a point along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or both

11、sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. /l/Trill ( 颤音 )A trill is produced when an articulator is set vibrating by the airstream. /r/Tap/Flap ( 触音 /闪音 ): When the tongue makes a single tap againstthe alveolar ridge（齿龈） to produce only one vibration, the sound is called a tap. The flap is pron

12、ounced with the tip of the tongue curled up（卷着） and back in a retroflex( 卷舌 ) gestureand then striking the roof of the mouth in the post-alveolar（后齿龈） region as it returns to its position behind the lower frontteeth.Affricate (塞擦音 / 破擦音 ): Affricates involve more than one of these manners of articul

13、ation in that they consist of a stopfollowed immediately afterwards by a fricative( 摩擦音 ) at the same place of articulation.发音部位：（十一个）Bilabial （双唇音）： Made with the two lips. /p, b, m/ /w/(we)Labiodental ( 唇齿音 )：Made with the lower lip and the upper frontteeth. /f, v/Dental (齿音 ): Made by the tongue

14、tip or blade（舌叶）and the upperfront teeth.Alveolar( 齿龈音 ): Made withthe tongue tipor blade and thealveolar ridge.Post-alveolar(后齿龈音 ): Made with the tongue tip and the back ofthe alveolar ridge.Retroflex（卷舌音）：Made with the tongue tip or blade curled back （卷曲） so that the underside of the tongue tip o

15、r blade forms astricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate(硬腭 ).Palatal（硬腭音）： Made with the front of the tongue and the hardpalate.Velar（软腭音）： Made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.Uvular （小舌音）： Made with the back of the tongue and the uvula,the short projection o

16、f soft tissue（软组织）and muscle at theposterior end of the velum(软腭 ).Pharyngeal(咽音 )：Made with the root of the tongue and the wall ofthe pharynx(咽).Glottal( 声门音 /喉音 )：Made with the two pieces of vocal folds( 声带 )pushed towards each other.Vowels-cardinal vowels( 基本元音 ), pure/monophthong vowels（单元音）, vo

17、wel glides（滑元音）, diphthongs（双元音 /ai/）, triphthongs（三合元音 /aie/）Broadtranscription( 宽 式 标 音 ) ： Use simpleand commonsymbols for the unusual symbols.Narrow transcription(严式标音） : Use more specific symbols toshow more phonetic detail.Phoneme（音素）Minimalpairs( 最小对立体)- 针对元音音素/i:/-/i/(beat/bit)/ei/-/ai/(tale

18、/tile)Allophones( 音位变体 ) ： (The variation in the pronunciation of phoneme in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation .) a phonetic variant of phoneme. e.g. /p/- peak, speak.Assimilation (同化 ): a process that one sound takes on some or allthe characteristics of a neighboring s

19、ound.-nasalization（鼻音化/kait/-/kain/）， dentalization（齿音化/tent/-/ten），velarization（ 软 腭 化 ）， regressive assimilation( 逆 同 化)，progressiveassimilation（顺同化）Dissimilation（异化）Morpheme( 词素 ) is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be d

20、ivided into further smaller units without destroying or dramatically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Morphology（形态学 /词形学） studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Types of morphemes: Free morpheme(自由词素 dog, close，nation), bound morphe

21、me （ 粘 着 词 素 dis-, -ed ） , root( 词 根 international-nation; friendships-friend), affix( 词缀 ), stem（词干 friendships-friendship ） , inflectional affix ( 曲 折 词 素 friendships-s) ， derivational affix （ 派 生 词 素 recite-recitation-recital ）Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used o

22、nly when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.Prefix( 前缀 ): para-, mini-, un- 举例如 unconscious，minibus 等Suffix （后缀） : -ise, -tion, -ismInfix （中缀） : abso-blooming-lutelyLexical Change Proper: Invention( 发明法 ), Blending （混成发） , Abbreviation （缩写法 advertisement-ad）, A

23、cronym（缩略法WTO-World Trade Organization ）, Back-formation（逆构词法）,Analogical creation （类推构词） , Borrowing （借词法）。Immediate Constituent Analysis （直接成分分析法） -treediagram(树形图 )Coordination( 并 列and, but,or)Subordination （ 从 属 ）Subject(主语 )Predicate（述谓）ThemeAhemeEmbedded sentence(嵌入句 )compound sentence (并列复合句

24、)Particle (小品词 up, down, in)The Referential Theory( 指称论 )- 主张这一理论的代表人物是Plato（柏拉图）Synonymy（同义词）is the technical name for the samenessrelation.Antonymy（反义词）is the name for oppositeness relation.Hyponymy(上下义关系 ) is a relation between two words, in whichthe meaning of one word(the superordinate 上位词 ) in

25、cludes themeaning of another word(the hyponym 下位词 ).Cognitive Linguistics is a newly established approach to the studyof language that emerged in the 1970s as a recreation against the dominant generative paradigm which pursues an autonomous view of language. It refers to the branch of linguistics that interprets language in terms of the concepts, sometimes universal, sometimes specific to a particular tongue, which underlie its f