语言学基本定义

1、语言 IanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by social group for com municati on.Arbitrari ness: the forms of lin guistic sig ns bear no n atural relati on shipto their meaning.Productivity:Ian guage is resourceful because of its duality and itsreclusive ness. We can use it to cre

2、ate new meanin gs.Duality: the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of eleme nt of the sec on dary level and each of the two levels has its own prin ciples of orga ni zati on.Displacement :human Ianguages enable their users to symbolize objec

3、ts, eve nts and con cepts which are not prese nt(i n time and spare) at the moveme nt of com muni cati on.Cultural transmission:Ianguage is not geneticallyinherited.Passed fromgeneration to generation, it requires somelearning.It is true humanareborn with Ian guage capacity, but a particular Ian gua

4、ge a pers on lear ns to speak isa cultural one, rather than a genetic one like the dogs'barking system.In tercha ngeability:any huma n being can be both a producer and receiverof messages.Lan guage function:in formative : Ian guage is the in strume nt of thought, record the facts. The use of Ian

5、 guage to record the facts is a prerequisite of social developme nt.In terpers onal : by far the most importa nt sociological use of Ian guage, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. Performative : the performative function of Ianguage is primarily to cha nge the socia

6、l status of pers onsEmotive: to change the emotional status of an audienee for or against some one or somethi ng.Phatie com munion: we all use such small, seem in gly meanin gless expressi ons to精选资料，欢迎下载mai nta in a comfortable relati on shipbetwee n people withoutinvolving any factual conten ts.Re

7、creational : the recreationalfunction of a Ianguage is often overlookedbecause it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usef uln ess.Metali ngual:our Ian guage can be used to talk about itself.Socioli nguistics the study of Ian guage with refere nee to society.Psycholi nguisti

8、cs-the study of Ian guage with refere nee to thework ingof the mind.Applied lin guistics-the applicati on of lin guistic prin ciples andtheories to Ian guage teach ing and lear ning.Important distinctions in linguistics:规定性Prescriptive . 描述性Descriptive /8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics 7.历时语言学Diachro

9、nic linguistics /5.语言能力Competence6. 语言运用performanee /9.语言Iangue 10. 言语 parole /speech, writing/ traditional grammar and moder n lin guistics第二章音系学1 Phono logyis the study of the sound patter ns and sound systems of Ian guages. Itaims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organize

10、d in Ian guages, and to expla in the variati ons that occur.2 intern ati onal phon etic alphabetA set of sta ndard phon etic symbols in the form of a chart, desig ned bythe intern ati onal phon etic associatio n since 1888. It has bee n revised from time to time to in elude n ewdiscoveries and cha n

11、ges in phon etic theory and practice.3 consonants and vowelsConsonant are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing, which is so marked that air can not escape without produc ing audible frictio n.Vowel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively uni mped

12、ed way through the mouth or no se.精选资料，欢迎下载4 card inal vowelAre a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defi ned, fixed and un cha nging,intended to provide a frame of referenee for the descriptionof the actualvowels of exist ing Ian guage.5 an ticipatory and perseverative co-articulatio nwhen such sim

13、ultaneous or overlapping articulation are invoIved, we call the processco-articulati on.If the sound becomes more like the followi ng soun d, it is known asan ticipatory co-articulatio n. If the sound shows the in flue nee of theproceed ing soun d,it is perseverative co-articulati on.6PhonemeThe sma

14、llest of sound which can disti nguish two words7Alloph onesDifferentphones which can represent a phonemein differentenvironmentsare called the alloph ones of that phon eme.8Mi nimal pairAre two words in a Ian guage which differ from each other by only onedist in ctive sound and which also differ in

15、meaning.9free variati onif two sounds occurringin the same environment do not contrast, that isthe substituti on of one for the other does not produce a differe nt wordform, but merely a differentpronunciationof the sameword, then the twowords are in free variati on.Chapter three 词汇学The total number

16、 of words stored in the brain is called thelexicon .Words are the smallest free un its of Ian guage that un ite sounds with meaning. Word : A unit of expressi on that has uni versal in tuitive recog niti on by n ative speakers, whether it is expressed in spoke n or writte n form.Lexeme the abstract

17、unit un derly ing the smallest unit in the lexical system of a Ian精选资料，欢迎下载guage, which appears in differe nt grammatical con texts. Grammatical/F un cti onalwords: express grammatical meanin gs, such asconjunctions, prepositi ons, articles, pronouns.Lexical/c ontent words: have lexical meanin gs, t

18、hose which refer tosubsta nee, acti on and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.Open-class words: a word group whosemembership is in principlein finiteor un limited. New members can be added. Closed-class words : a word group whose membership is fixed or limited, new members are no

19、t regularly added.Morphology; the study of word formation, the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Morphemes the smallest unit Ian guage in terms of relati on ship betwee n expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destr

20、oying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: those that may con stitute words by themselves.Bound morphemes those that can not occur aloneRoot: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of ide ntity. It is that part

21、of a word-form that remai ns whe n all the in flect ional affixes and derivati onal affixes have bee n removed.Affix: the types of formative/morpheme that can be used only whe n added to ano ther morpheme.Base: any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; a form to which a rule ofword formati

22、o n is applied.Stem the part of the word form which remains whenail inflectionalaffixeshave bee n removed.In flectio n: in dicates grammatical relati ons by add ing in flect ionalaffixes.Derivati on : comb in ati on of an existi ng word and an affix to form a new word.精选资料，欢迎下载Compounding/compositio

23、n is word-formationprocess consistingof joiningtwo or more bases to form a new un it, a compo und word-A n In troduct ion toModer n Lin guistics.Endocentric : one element serves as the head, of same syntactic class asthe whole the relati on ship ofa ki nd of ' .Exocentric : there is no head, no

24、elements is of the same syntactic class as thewhole, so not a relati on ship ofa kind ofsomethi ng.Derivation : is also calledaffixation' . It is the morphological processwhereby grammatical of lexical in formatio n is added to the base. Conversion : is a word-formation process by which a word i

25、s altered fromone part of speech to an ther without the additi on or deleti on of any morpheme. Allomorph : some morphemes have a sin gle form in all con texts. But a morpheme may have con siderable variati ons, alter nate shapes or phon etic forms called the allomorph.Blending : a process of word-i

26、nformation inwhich a new word is formed bycombi ning the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full formor both of which are not in their full forms.Back-formation : a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affixfrom a Ion ger form already in the Ian guage.Acro nym wo

27、rds formed from the in itial letters of the n ame of anorganization or scientific term, etc. it differs from initialismsin thatthey are pronoun ced as words rather tha n as seque nee of letter.Initialism : a type of shortening, using the first letter of words to form a proper n ame, a tech ni cal te

28、rm, or phrase; an in itialism is pronoun ced letter by letter. An alogical creati on : It can acco unt for the coexiste nee of two forms,regular and irregular, I the con jugati on of some En glish verbs.Loa nwords: both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptati on. Loanblend: part of

29、 the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.精选资料，欢迎下载Chapter 4 syn taxSyn tax: the study of the rules gover ning the way words are comb ined toform senten ces in a Ian guage, or simply the study of the formati on of senten ces.Category : the term category in some appr

30、oaches refers to classes andfun cti ons in its n arrow sen se. More specifically, it refers to the defi ning properties of these gen eral un its.Phrase: is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lack ing the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.Word group is an ext

31、ension of word of a particular class by way of modificati on with its mai n features of the class un cha nged. Clause: a constituent with its own subjects and predicate when it is in cluded in a lager senten ce.Syntagmatic is a relation between one item and others in a sequenee or betwee neleme nts

32、which are all prese nt.Paradigmatic relati onrefers to classes or sets of words substitutablefor each other grammatically in senten ces with the same structure. grammatical constructi on; any syn tacticcon struct which is assig ned oneor more conven tio nal fun cti ons in a Ian guage, together with

33、whatever islinguisticallyconventionalizedabout its contributionto the meaning oruse the con struct contains.con stitue ntis a term used in structural sentence an alysis for everylin guistic un it, which is a part of a larger lin guistic un it. Severalcon stitue nts together form a con structi on.An

34、en doce ntric con structi onis one whose distributio n is fun ctio nallyequivale nt to one of its con stitue nts, which serves as the cen ter or head of thewhole.Exocentric constructionrefers to a group of syntacticallyrelated wordswhere none of the words is fun ctio nallyequivale nt to the group as

35、 a whole,that is, there is no defi nable Centre”or Head' in side the group, usually in clud ing精选资料，欢迎下载the basic senten ce, the prepositi onal phrase, the predicate con struct ion, and theconn ective con structi on.Subordi nate con struct ionthose in which there is on ly one head, with thehead

36、being dominant and the other con stitue nts depe ndent,Coord in ate con structi on:there are more tha n one head, the head can sta ndfor the orig inal con struct ion fun cti on ally.Deep structure: the abstract represe ntati on of thesyn tactic propertiesof a con struct ionSurface structure:the fina

37、l stage in syn tactic derivati on of acon struct ion.Chapter five Sema nticsDeno tati on invo Ives the relati on ship betwee n a lin guistic unit and the non-li nguistic en tities to which it refers. Thus it is equivale nt to refere ntial mea ning. Connotation -opposite to denotation, means the prop

38、erties of the entity a word deno tes.Sense be defined as the semantics relationsbetween one word and another,or more gen erally betwee n the one lin guistic unit and ano ther.Refere nee: is concerned with the relatio n betwee n a word and the thi ng it refers to , or more gen erally betwee n a lin guistic unit and non-li nguistic en tity it refers to.