公共产品导论

1、2 2 公共产品公共产品目标公共产品概述公共产品提供的局部均衡模型公共产品提供的一般均衡模型公共产品提供的困难私人提供公共产品实验经济学对公共产品的研究公共产品PUBLIC GOODS概述公共产品特征（1）消费上的非竞争性（非对抗性）（2）非排他性注意：公共产品的特征是指公共产品的自然属性。某种产品不会因为提供者的改变而改变其产品属性。3公共产品4排他性非排他性竞争性纯私人产品纯私人产品（1）排他成本较低（2）主要由私人企业生产（3）通过市场分配（4）从销售收入中获得所需资金例如：苹果、鞋子、书本等。混合产品混合产品（1）产品是集体消费的，但会变得拥挤（2）由私人企业生产，或直接由公共部门提供

2、（3）由市场分配，或直接由预算分配（4）从销售收入中获得所需经费，如征收服务费，或者从税收收入中拨款。例如：运输系统、保健服务、卫生防疫等。非竞争性混合产品混合产品（1）具有外部性的私人产品（2）主要由私人企业生产（3）通过补贴和征税，主要由私人市场分配（4）通过销售收入获得所需经费。例如：剧院、公园、有线电视等。纯公共产品（1）很高的排他成本（2）直接由政府生产，或由私人企业根据政府合同生产（3）通过预算分配（4）从强制性税收中拨款例如：国防、外交等。光谱私人产品 公共产品市场失效与政府干预公共产品外部性（外溢性、外部效应）规模报酬递增（自然垄断）信息不对称收入分配不公经济不稳定狭义和广义公

3、共产品资源配置收入分配经济稳定公共产品与公共服务公共服务型政府HHOWOW TOTO STOPSTOP THETHE DRUGDRUG WARSWARSFailed states and failed policiesFailed states and failed policiesMar 5th 2009From The Economist print editionProhibition has failed; Prohibition has failed; legalisationlegalisation is the least is the least bad solutionbad

4、 solution一百来年的禁毒史技术上可能吗？知识John Leach, A Course in Public Economics, Cambridge University Press, 2004. (上海财经大学出版社2005年重印)Once something is known, that knowledge can be used by anyone, and its use by any one person does not preclude its use by others.Our use of calculus to study economics, Others use

5、of calculus to study industry and sciencePublic consumption goodsPublic factors of productionIn 1900, the only “digital technology” was telegraphKnowledge is a public good whose creation requires the expenditure of scarce resources, and which has profound implications for economic welfare.The questi

6、on of whether a competitive system would allocate sufficient resources to its production is then of crucial importance. No.Innovators are driven by many things: curiosity, altruism, desire for fame or fortune-but they must still put food on their tables and equipment in their laboratories, To depend

7、 at least in part on economic incentives Social cost of additional research =social benefit知识布赖恩卡欣Brian Kahin and哈尔瓦里安 Hal R. Varian：Internet Publishing and Beyond: The Economics of Digital Information,传媒经济学：数字信息经济学与知识产权，中信出版社，2003年。（英文2000年）信息的复制与传播成本几乎为零，至少对文本信息是这样。我的浏览不影响你的浏览知识出版商如何收费？营销方式的改变，大不列

8、颠百科全书，广告支撑 现刊不收费 从收费到不收费Varian /hal New! Hal R. Varian I am a professor in the School of Information, the Haas School of Business, and the Department of Economics at the University of California at Berkeley. I am currently on leave from Berkeley and am serving as Chief Economist

9、 at Google. 知识电子出版盈利模式中文世界与英文世界有何不同？复印与盗版收入再分配People do care about the welfare of others.人们的确关心其他人的福利Government-mandated and voluntary redistribution政府强制性再分配与资源再分配Charity as a public good作为公共产品的慈善AVINASH K. DIXIT国家，法律：公共产品私立秩序：超越或补充了政府的弱经济治理模式私立秩序：长期关系、仲裁、传播信息的社会网络和交易中奉行的准则，营利性合约执行Avinash K. Dixit ,

10、 2004, Lawlessness and Economics: Alternative Modes of Governance, Princeton University Press. 法律缺失与经济学：可供选择的经济治理模式，中国人民出版社，2007.为什么不同时期不同国家所提供的公共产品不同人口结构的变化技术进步水利 我过去主持水利部工作，犯了一个错误，只注重社会经济用水，没认识到首先要保证河流的生态与环境用水。钱正英成本收益经济转型期的公共产品提供国家作为经济实体：资源多，规模大 中国国有资源国家作为强制性机构：强制力，垄断地位。执行合同，表达自己的意志两种国家观：机械体、有机体国家

11、的三只手无为之手（看不见的手）扶持之手helping hand （福利经济学）掠夺之手grabbing hand（公共选择理论）同时国家的两难困境：该如何设计国家制度？王一江 等：国家与经济：关于转型中的中国市场经济改革，北京大学出版社2007年版。公共产品概述公共产品理论：现代公共财政学（公共经济学）的核心理论Richard A. Musgrave（19102007）/news/2007/01/16_musgrave.php 公共产品公共支出 政府的存在是为了提供公共产品税收（公共产品的价格）公共产品提供的局部均衡模型最优水平？最优水平？庇古

12、模型庇古（ACPigou，1877-1959）运用功利主义的方法，假定：每个人都从公共产品的消费中受益（获得效用）；公共产品的提供支付成本即交纳税收；纳税会给纳税人（即公共产品的消费者）带来负效用。庇古把税收产生的负效用，定义为放弃私人产品消费的机会成本。他认为，公共产品应该持续提供到最后一元钱所得到的正边际社会效用等于为最后一元公共产品而纳税的负边际效用相等时。GGTTA(+)(-)社会的边际效用公共产品的数量CCNN图21庇古的公共产品提供图鲍温模型 HHOWARDOWARD R ROTHMANNOTHMANN B BOWENOWEN (OCTOBER 27, 1908 DECEMBER

13、22, 1989)Howard R BowenBowen， The Interpretation of Voting The Interpretation of Voting in the Allocation of Economic Resources in the Allocation of Economic Resources ， Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 58, No. 1. (1943), pp. 27-48.Individual goods， divisibility Social goods高等教育鲍温模型 HHOWARDOWARD

14、 R ROTHMANNOTHMANN B BOWENOWEN (OCTOBER 27, 1908 DECEMBER 22, 1989) DADBSDD=DA+DBOQAQBQPSD私人产品数量价格图22私人产品的需求与供给SSDADBD=DA+DBDDQPAPBP公共产品数量价格图2-3公共产品的需求与供给鲍温模型私人产品：横向相加公共产品：纵向相加与私人产品的需求曲线不同的是，公共产品的需求曲线是虚拟的。消费者购买私人产品所支付的货币数量，会反映其对私人产品的实际需求，但市场无法直接提供公共产品的实际需求信息。这里所假定的某人对公共产品的需求曲线，只是模拟市场作出的。这种假定的意义在于突出私

15、人产品与公共产品需求上存在的差异。BOWEN 论文的主要内容Individual goods and social goods comparedQuantitative measurement of social goodsIdeal output of social goodsIndividual voting on outputsIndividual voting on outputsIndividual voting on increments to existing Individual voting on increments to existing outputsoutputs A

16、lternatives to voting Alternatives to votingDistributing the cost of social goodsDistributing the cost of social goodsSocial goods not equally available to all votersSocial goods not equally available to all voters纯公共产品最优提供的一般均衡模型纯公共产品最优提供的一般均衡模型B所消费的私人产品数量XBOB3OA所消费的私人产品数量XA公共产品G的数量OA2A2A1A1MTTGQAX

17、(a)公共产品G的数量BXNGG(b)(c)私人产品总数XB3B2B2B1B1公共产品G的数量B2FFX1G2G1PEQX1AXBX图2-4资源在私人产品和公共产品之间的配置B2P杨志勇 张 馨 公共产品G的数量A2A2A1A1T1T1OA所消费的个人产品数量XAA3A3A4A4T2T3T4T2T3T4LL图2-5社会资源最优配置轨迹杨志勇 张 馨个人A的序数效用函数UAOUUW0W0B个人B的序数效用函数UB图2-6社会资源配置极乐点W1W1W2W2公共产品提供的萨缪尔森条件消费上的边际替代率之和等于生产上的边际转换率MRSMRTPaul A. Samuelson, 1954, Pure T

18、heory of Public Expenditure, Review of Economics and Statistics, 36(11): 387-389._,1955, Diagrammatic Exposition of A Theory of Public Expenditure, Review of Economics and Statistics, 37(11): 350-356.杨志勇公共产品供应的威克塞尔林达尔模型（WL模型） AABBG1G*G2OAOBh*h1h=0h=1A所支付的税收的比重B所支付的税收的比重公共产品G的数量图2-7威克塞尔林达尔模型杨志勇WL模型W-

19、L模型是一个局部均衡模型，提出的时间比萨缪尔森模型要早。它又不同于鲍温和庇古的模型，因为它考虑了政治因素。W-L模型试图找出民主社会中公共产品产出的合理水平，以及在不同的人之间如何分摊公共产品的成本即税收负担问题。A New Principle of Just Taxation; K.Wicksell （18511926）1885年数学博士，1887 听了门格尔的讲座之后，兴趣转向社会科学 Just Taxation: A Positive Solution; E.Lindahl （18911960）Alan T. Peacock and Richard A. Musgrave (eds.),

20、 1958, Classics in the Theory of Public Finance, MacMillan, 经典财政理论THE CLASSICSThis book was prepared mainly for specialists on the assumption that it would provide the background to an important neglected field of discussion in public finance. Since it was first published in 1958, the theory of publ

21、ic goods and its implications for public policy have become incorporated in the main body of the economic analysis of public finance in the literature. A glance at the footnotes of some of the standard textbooks on public finance indicates that this assembly of articles has not been in vain. THE CLA

22、SSICSProbably the most influential part of this Probably the most influential part of this collection has been the papers concerned with the collection has been the papers concerned with the theory of public expenditure, which contains two theory of public expenditure, which contains two closely rel

23、ated elements. The first is as a part of closely related elements. The first is as a part of welfare economics: under what conditions can welfare economics: under what conditions can Pareto optimality be achieved in an economic Pareto optimality be achieved in an economic system in which some goods

24、supplied are system in which some goods supplied are indivisible? The other strand of thought is indivisible? The other strand of thought is concerned with the positive theory of the public concerned with the positive theory of the public sector: how can economic analysis be used in sector: how can

25、economic analysis be used in order to explain how the size and composition of order to explain how the size and composition of the budget is actually determined? the budget is actually determined? 公共产品提供的困难与公共产品的私人提供 杨志勇 张 馨囚徒A囚徒B抵赖坦白抵赖坦白（1，1）（8，8）（0，10）（10，0）图2-8囚徒困境“囚徒困境”模型公共产品提供犹如“囚徒困境”，合作与搭便车问题“

26、囚徒困境”的解脱一种机制杨志勇 张 馨个人选择税收LS13020240032010合计504030公共产品的私人提供现实中私人提供公共产品：慈善事业（与“搭便车”比较）非营利性组织科斯（1974）：the Lighthouse in Economics经济学中的灯塔BBV1986Journal of Public Economics celebrating the 20th anniversary of the Bergstrom, Blume, and Varian paper on public goods. 杨志勇 张 馨Dixit, A., and M. Olson. Does Vol

27、untary Participation Undermine the Coase Theorem? Journal of Public Economics 76, no. 3 (June 2000): 309-335. Corporate Social ResponsiblityEMPIRICAL ESTIMATION AND PUBLIC GOODSEstimation of demand for private goods versus public goodsCharitable givingCharitable giving （New Palgrave, 2e.）Direct eval

28、uation techniques and public goods contingent valuation methods or survey approach asks individuals to state their willingness to pay for public goods -a compensated valuation (CV) measure of consumer surplus for each individual experimental economics and public goods another direct method: voting m

29、ethod公共产品论的实验经济学视角研究 实验经济学介绍公共产品提供实验的分类对“搭便车”程度的研究减少“搭便车”机制的研究对公共产品理论研究的其他影响杨志勇 张 馨Indirect evaluation techniques and public goodsTo utilize market-provided data to estimate a demand for public goods Indirect: from private goods to public goods the hedonic approach享乐主义方法: an individual demands goods

30、 to use in the household production of final characteristics or commodities, which provide satisfactionFirst step: the implicit price of a public characteristic (e.g., clean air) must be estimated, using price differentials revealed in the private goods marketSecond step: the implicit price must be

31、regressed against the observed quantities of the public characteristics to estimate the demand function the selling price for a house,Travel-cost methodsTo account for the effects that a sites characteristics have on the demand for the sites services, A third indirect evaluation procedure a related market technique uses market-observable demands for private goods to estimate demands for consumption-related public goods two requirements must be met:1) the individua