Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论(现代语言学)

1、Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to som

2、e general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究，并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料，即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法，继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。

3、A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applica

4、ble in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。它的研究对象主要是能够应用于所有语言研究的基本概念、理论、描述、模型和方法等。Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, so it is hardly possible for the linguists to deal with it all at once. They have to concentrate on one aspect of it at a time.语言是一种包含有

5、多个层次和方面的综合体，所以语言学家们不可能一下子都能面面俱到，每一次只能集中研究其中的一个方面。What first drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages. This study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics.首先引起语言学家们注意的是语言使用中的声音现象。这种对语言交际中声音的研究最终促成了语言学的

6、第一个分支语音学的建立。Linguists became interested in how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; they developed another branch of study related to sounds called phonology.语言学家们开始对交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式感兴趣，这样他们又建立了和语音相关的另外一个分支语系学。Morphology 形态学Syntax 句法学Semantics 语义学Pragmatics 语用学Socio

7、linguistics 社会语言学Psycholinguistics :心理语言学We as infants acquire our mother tongue. 小时候是怎么习得母语Applied linguistics 应用语言学The emergence of a new teaching approach or method often follows the emergence of a new linguistic theory.一种新的教学理念或教学方法的出现总是和某种新的语言学理论相伴而生的。1.3 Some important distinctions in linguist

8、ics 语言学研究中的一些基本概念1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性 与 描述性If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive ; Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.如果一种语言学的研究是对人们实际使用中的语言进行的描述和分析，那么这种研究就是描述性的;现代语言学则基本上都是描述性的。If it aims to lay down rules

9、 for “correct” behaviour, i.e., to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.如果某种研究的目的是在对所谓“正确的”行为制订一些规则，即告诉人们他们应该说什么，不应该说什么，那么这种研究就是规定性的。1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性 与 历时性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic st

10、udy.对处于某一时间点的语言所作的描述叫做共时性研究。The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.对随时间的推移而发生变化的语言所作的描述，叫做历时性研究。1.3.3 Speech and writing 口头语 与 书面语Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary , not the written.现代语言学比较看重的是口头语言，而不是书面语言。In the past, traditional gramm

11、arians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.过去，传统的语法学家们都有过分强调书面语重要性的倾向，这是由于书面语的相对恒定性。The writing system of any language is always a later invention.任何语言的书写体系总是人们后来发明的。While quite a number of languages in the world today have both spoken and wr

12、itten forms.大多数语言既有口头形式又有书面形式。1.3.4 Langue and parole 语言 和 言语 Saussure 索绪尔Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.语言指的是某一特定的语言社区中的所有成员所共有的那种抽象的语言系统，言语则指的是语言在实际应用中的具体体现。Langue is the

13、set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.语言是语言使用者们必须恪守的一套语言习惯和规则，而言语则是指对这些习惯和规则的遵守和实际应用。1.3.5 Competence and performance 语言能力 和 语言运用Chomsky 乔姆斯基Similar to Saussures distinction between l

14、angue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance.乔姆斯基提出了一对和语言言语相类似的概念，即语言能力和语言运用。Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.乔姆斯基的定义，能力是一个理想的语言使用者所具有的有

15、关其所使用语言规则的知识，运用则是指这种知识在语言交际过程中的实际运用。Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speakers competence, not his performance.和索绪尔一样，乔姆斯基也认为语言学家应该研究的是说话者能力，而不是他对语言的实际应用。2. What is language? 什么是语言？2.1 Definitions of language 语言的定义Chomskys definition: its purpose is to

16、 focus attention on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.乔姆斯基的定义，其目的是强调语言纯粹的结构特征并且指出这种特征可以用精确地、数字的方法加以分析研究。Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人

17、类交际目的的一套任意的有声符号系统。This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeares play“Romeo and Juliet ”: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet ”莎士比亚戏剧<罗密欧与朱丽叶>中的名言“玫瑰换个名词闻起来还是香的”就是对语言这种习惯性特征的最好证明。2.2 Design features (Charles Hocker 构想的) 语言的区别性特征 Desi

18、gn features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.区别性特征指的是人类语言和其他动物的交际系统区别开来的那些特征。1)Arbitrariness 语言的武断性（任意性）There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.声音和意义之间没有任何逻辑关系。A good example is the fact that different s

19、ounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.最好的一个例子就是不同的语言里使用不同的声音来代替相同的事物。It is not entirely arbitrary. There are words in every language that imitate natural sounds, such as rumble, crash, cackle, and bang in English.并不全是任意的，每种语言里面都有直接模仿自然界声音的词汇。2)Productivity 语言的创造性This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.说明了他们为什么能够创造和理解无限多的句子，甚至包括他们以前从没有听过的句子。 3)Duality 语言的双重性This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables