土木工程英文文献及翻译

1、civil engineeringcivil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like bridges, roads, canals, dams, and buildings.123 civil engineering is the oldest engineering disc

2、ipline after military engineering,4 and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering.5 it is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, munici

3、pal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering,4 surveying, and construction engineering.6 civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual ho

4、meowners through to international companies.history of the civil engineering professionsee also: history of structural engineeringengineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. the earliest practices of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 bc in

5、 ancient egypt and mesopotamia (ancient iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. during this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.until modern times there was no cl

6、ear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably.7 the construction of pyramids in egypt (circa 2700-2500 bc) might be considered the first instances of large s

7、tructure constructions. other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the parthenon by iktinos in ancient greece (447-438 bc), the appian way by roman engineers (c. 312 bc), the great wall of china by general meng t'ien under orders from ch'in emperor shih huang ti (c. 220 b

8、c)6 and the stupas constructed in ancient sri lanka like the jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in anuradhapura. the romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.in the 18th century, the term civi

9、l engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering.5 the first self-proclaimed civil engineer was john smeaton who constructed the eddystone lighthouse.46 in 1771 smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the smeatonian society of civil engineers, a group

10、of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.in 1818 the institution of civil engineers was founded in london, and in 1820 the eminent engineer thomas telford became its first president. th

11、e institution received a royal charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. its charter defined civil engineering as:the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for

12、 external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for th

13、e purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.8the first private college to teach civil engineering in the united states was norwich university founded in 1819 by captain alden partridge.9 the first degree in civil engineering i

14、n the united states was awarded by rensselaer polytechnic institute in 1835.10 the first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by cornell university to nora stanton blatch in 1905. history of civil engineeringcivil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and

15、its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography

16、, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom

17、supplanted by advances. structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.12one of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of archimedes in the 3rd centur

18、y bc, including archimedes principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as archimedes' screw. brahmagupta, an indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century ad, based on hindu-arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.13civil engine

19、ers typically possess an academic degree with a major in civil engineering. the length of study for such a degree is usually three to five years and the completed degree is usually designated as a bachelor of engineering, though some universities designate the degree as a bachelor of science. the de

20、gree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the sub-disciplines of civil engineering. students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the e

21、nd of the degree.14 while an undergraduate (beng/bsc) degree will normally provide successful students with industry accredited qualification, some universities offer postgraduate engineering awards (meng/msc) which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest within eng

22、ineering.15in most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. after completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (includin

23、g work experience and exam requirements) before being certified. once certified, the engineer is designated the title of professional engineer (in the united states, canada and south africa), chartered engineer (in most commonwealth countries), chartered professional engineer (in australia and new z

24、ealand), or european engineer (in much of the european union). there are international engineering agreements between relevant professional bodies which are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders.the advantages of certification vary depending upon location. for example,

25、 in the united states and canada "only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.".16 this requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation

26、 such as quebec's engineers act.17 in other countries, no such legislation exists. in australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of queensland. practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.18 in this w

27、ay, these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law. in cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tor

28、t of negligence and, in extreme cases, the charge of criminal negligence.citation needed an engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law.careersthere is no one typical career path for civil engin

29、eers. most people who graduate with civil engineering degrees start with jobs that require a low level of responsibility, and as the new engineers prove their competence, they are trusted with tasks that have larger consequences and require a higher level of responsibility. however, within each bran

30、ch of civil engineering career path options vary. in some fields and firms, entry-level engineers are put to work primarily monitoring construction in the field, serving as the "eyes and ears" of senior design engineers; while in other areas, entry-level engineers perform the more routine

31、tasks of analysis or design and interpretation. experienced engineers generally do more complex analysis or design work, or management of more complex design projects, or management of other engineers, or into specialized consulting, including forensic engineering.in general, civil engineering is co

32、ncerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. general civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage, pavement, wate

33、r supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions. general engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans. general civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil e

34、ngineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial

35、, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction翻译：土木工程土木工程是一个专业的工程学科，包括设计，施工和维护与环境的改造，涉及了像桥梁，道路，河渠，堤坝和建筑物工程交易土木工程是最古老的军事工程后，工程学科，它被定义为区分军事工程非军事工程的学科它传统分解成若干子学科包括环境工程，岩土工程，结构工程，交通工程，市或城市工程，水资源工程，材料工程，海岸工程，勘测和施工工程等土木工程的范围涉及所有层次：从市政府到国家，从私人部门到国际公司。历史土木工程专业自从有了人类，土木工程便进入到了

36、我们的日常生活。土木工程最早的追溯在公元前2000年至4000的古埃及和美索不达米亚（古伊拉克）。当人们开始放弃了游牧的存在，从而造成了对栖身地的需要和。在此期间，交通变得越来越重要，导致车轮和帆船的发展。直到近代也不存在土木工程与建筑明显的区别，以及长期工程师和建筑师，主要指的是同一个人，通常可以互换使用。在埃及建造金字塔（公元前大约二七零零年至2500年）可能被视为第一个大型结构建筑实例。其他古代历史土木工程建设包括古代希腊帕台农神庙的iktinos（447-438年），由罗马工程师亚壁古道（公元前312年）设计，再如由秦始皇下令，蒙恬将军负责建造的中国长城。以及古代斯里兰卡建造像jeta

37、vanaramaya和广泛的灌溉佛塔工程阿努拉德普勒。罗马帝国在其整个开发土木结构，特别是包括渡槽，insulae，港口，桥梁，堤坝和道路。在18世纪，这个词土木工程是杜撰把所有的东西平民而不是军事工程5第一个自称约翰smeaton土木工程师是修建了埃迪斯通灯塔smeaton 1771年和他的一些同事形成了土木smeatonian学会，他们是在吃饭时结识的。虽然有一些技术会议的证据，它只不过是一个社会的社会。1818年英国土木工程师学会成立于伦敦，并在1820年著名的工程师托马斯德福成为它的第一位会长。该机构在1828年获得皇家宪章，正式承认作为一个专业的土木工程。其章程规定民用建筑工程为：利

38、用自然使人方便，作为生产和贩运国家都对外部和内部的贸易，如道路，桥梁，沟渠，运河的建设应用，手段，艺术，内河航运和码头内部往来和交流，并在港口，码头，鼹鼠，防波堤和灯塔的建设，并在航行为商业目的人工力量的艺术，在建筑和机械的应用，而在城市和城镇排水第一个民办高校任教的美国诺威治大学土木工程是在1819年由船长奥尔登鹧鸪。9在土木工程中的美国第一学位是由伦斯勒理工学院于1835年颁发。第一个这样的荣誉，被美国康奈尔大学在1905年和诺拉斯坦顿布拉奇颁发给一名女子。土木工程历史土木工程是物理和科学原理的应用，它的历史是错综复杂的联系，在整个历史上的物理学和数学的认识的进步。由于土木工程是一个广泛的行业，包括几个独立的专门的子学科，它的历史与知识结构，材料科学，地理，地质，土壤，水文，环境，机械等领域。纵观历史上最古老的和中世纪的建筑设计和施工进行了如石匠和木匠手艺，上升到建筑师的作用。知识被保留在很少的行会，进步甚微。构筑物，道路和基础设施的存在是重复的，并在规模上升的增量对科学的态度，以物理和数学问题，适用于民用建筑工程的最早的例子之一是在公元前3世纪阿基米德的工作，包括阿基米德的原则，这巩固了我们的浮力的认识，如阿基米德螺旋切实可行的解决方案。 brahmagupta，印度数学家，