Fallacies Edited

1、Understanding Logical FallaciesWhat is a fallacy?A fallacy is an incorrect argument in logic. (the argument is not supported with reason and logic). Including fallacies in your argument will weaken your argument. Fallacious Arguments Fallacious arguments are very common and can be quite persuasive,

2、at least to the casual reader or listener. You can find examples in newspapers, advertisements, political speeches, and essays.Fallacious arguments Most fallacious arguments sound reasonable, but they could be attempts to manipulate readers by reaching their emotions instead of their intellects, or

3、illogical statements presented confidently.Why is it important to know about logical fallacies?If you know about fallacies, and the different kinds of logical fallacies, you will be able to do two things.1. You will be able to improve your own argument because you will be able to stay away from logi

4、cal fallacies.2. You will be able to recognize logical fallacies in other peoples arguments/writings. Type of Logical FallaciesAd hominemAd populumBegging the QuestionCircular ReasoningFalse AnalogyHasty GeneralizationsNon-SequiturPost hoc ergo propter hocRed HerringSlippery SlopeStraw ManTu QuoqueT

5、hese are just some of the many logical fallacies. Ad hominem An attack on the person, or the character of the person, rather than his or her arguments or opinions. In Latin, ad hominem means, “against the man.”Ad hominemThis is what an ad hominem can look like.Person A makes claim XPerson B makes an

6、 attack on Person AThe implication is that if something is wrong with Person A, than theres something wrong with claim X. Ad hominem exampleMichael Vick is not a good football player; Why is this an example of an ad hominem?ClaimSupporting evidenceAd hominem exampleMichael Vick is not a good footbal

7、l player; While the claim may be true, the arguer does not support his or her claim with reason and logic. It is simply an attack on Michael Vick. Therefore, it is an ad hominem fallacy. ClaimSupporting evidenceAd hominem examples How can you say hes a good musician when he has been in and out of re

8、hab for three years? Sara is divorced, so whatever relationship advice she gives you cant be good. Hes not a good leader. He only got the job because he is handsome.Ad populum A fallacious argument that appeals to the popularity of the claim as a reason to accept it. In Latin, ad populum means, “app

9、eal to the people.”Ad populumThis is what an ad populum can look like.If many people believe X, X is considered to be true or good.Ad populum exampleso Gatorade is the superior sports beverage.Why is this an example of an ad populum?ClaimSupporting evidenceAd populum exampleso Gatorade is the superi

10、or sports beverage.While the claim may be true, all of the supporting evidence relies in its popularity, not on researched data. ClaimSupporting evidenceBegging the Question An argument that assumes that the premise of the claim is true This is a type of circular reasoning. It is weak because it fai

11、ls to prove anything other than what is assumed.Begging the Question exampleplastic grocery bags should be banned. Why is this an example of begging the question?ClaimSupporting evidenceBegging the Question exampleplastic grocery bags should be banned. This is an example of begging the question beca

12、use the person arguing the claim is assuming that the supporting evidence (that plastic grocery bags are useless and wasteful) is a valid claim in itself. ClaimSupporting evidenceBegging the question examples The reason everyone wants the new toy is because its the hottest toy of the season! Why sho

13、uld we put people on trial when we know that they are guilty? Abortion is the unjustified killing of a human being and such is murder. Murder is illegal, so abortion should be illegal.Circular Reasoning A fallacious argument that restates the argument or claim rather than proving it. The argument go

14、es in a circle The arguer assumes what he or she is attempting to prove.Circular ReasoningThis is what circular reasoning can look like.Claim A is true because of claim BB is true because of ACircular Reasoning exampleHe is a good leader Why is this an example of circular reasoning?ClaimSupporting e

15、videnceCircular Reasoning exampleHe is a good leader because he leads the people. This argument is an example of circular reasoning because the claim and the supporting evidence are nearly identical. The arguer simply restated the claim as the supporting evidence.ClaimSupporting evidenceFalse Analog

16、y This is an argument that is based on a misleading comparison.False AnalogyThis is what false analogy can look like.Item A and item B are similarItem A is like ZTherefore, B should be like Z alsoFalse Analogy exampleStudents should be able to use their notes and textbooks on exams Why is this an ex

17、ample of a false analogy?ClaimSupporting evidenceFalse Analogy exampleStudents should be able to use their notes and textbooks on exams This is an example of false analogy because students and surgeons are not alike. During exams, students need to show what they have learned, whereas surgeons have a

18、lready proven their knowledge and they are completing a task.ClaimSupporting evidenceHasty Generalizations A conclusion, or a claim, that is based on insufficient evidence. This happens when the arguer rushes to a conclusion before having enough relevant facts.Hasty GeneralizationsThis is what a has

19、ty generalization can look like.Z is true for AZ is true for BZ is true for CZ is true for DTherefore, Z must be true for E, F, G.Y, ZHasty Generalizations exampleI can already tell Im going to hate this year. Why is this an example of a hasty generalization?ClaimSupporting evidenceHasty Generalizat

20、ions exampleI can already tell Im going to hate this year. This argument is an example of a hasty generalization because the arguer is making a claim based on insufficient evidence. One days worth of evidence is not sufficient to make a claim for an entire year.ClaimSupporting evidenceNon-Sequitur A

21、 conclusion or statement that does not logically follow from the previous argument or statement. In Latin non-sequitur means, “it does not follow.”Non-SequiturThis is what a non-sequitur can look like.Person A makes claim 1Person A provides support for claim 1Therefore, claim 2 must be trueNon-Sequi

22、tur exampleTherefore, it is healthy to eat French fries everyday. Why is this an example of a non-sequitur?ClaimSupporting evidenceNon-Sequitur exampleTherefore, it is healthy to eat French fries everyday. This is an example of a non-sequitur because the real claim in the argument (that it is health

23、y to eat French fires everyday) is not supported by any evidence or logic. The claim does not properly follow the premises of the argument.ClaimSupporting evidenceNon-sequitur example People generally like to walk on the beach. Beaches have sand. Therefore, having sand floors in homes would be a gre

24、at idea! Why is this non-sequitur?Post hoc ergo propter hoc This logical fallacy occurs when it is assumed that one thing caused another when the two events happen sequentially. In Latin, post hoc ergo propter hoc means, “after this, therefore because of this.” Shortened to “post hoc”Post hoc ergo p

25、ropter hocThis is what post hoc ergo propter hoc can look like.Event A happensThen, event B happensTherefore, event A must have caused event BPost hoc Leaping to a casual conclusion is always easier and faster than investigating the phenomenon, so post hoc logical fallacies are quite common.Jane get

26、s a rather large wart on her finger. Based on a story her father told her, she cuts a potato in half, rubs it on the wart and then buries it under the light of a full moon. Over the next month her wart shrinks and eventually vanishes. Jane writes her father to tell him how right he was about the cur

27、ePost hoc example Jane gets a rather large wart on her finger. Based on a story her father told her, she cuts a potato in half, rubs it on the wart and then buries it under the light of a full moon. Over the next month her wart shrinks and eventually vanishes. Jane writes her father to tell him how

28、right he was about the curePost hoc example Lawyer Andrew Schlafly once said that “in Romania, abortion was illegal under two decades of rule by Nicolae Ceausescu, and the country enjoyed one of the lowest breast cancer rates in the entire world during that time, far lower than comparable Western co

29、untries.” (Conservapedia)Red Herring This is a logical fallacy that is a diversion tactic that leads people away from the key or real issues. To create a red herring, people will oppose arguments rather than addressing them. Leads the reader or audience to a false conclusion.Red HerringThis is what

30、a red herring can look like.Issue Y is being discussedIssue Z is disguised to look relevant to YIssue Y is ignored/abandonedRed Herring exampleEnergy drinks can be potentially very dangerous. Why is this an example of a red herring?ClaimSupporting evidenceRed Herring exampleEnergy drinks can be pote

31、ntially very dangerous. The highlighted portion of the argument is a red herring because it distracts the audience from the issue at hand (energy drinks can be potentially dangerous). ClaimSupporting evidenceRed Herring example There is a lotSlippery Slope This fallacy occurs when a person argues th

32、at an event will inevitably happen without providing any examples that this may happen. In most cases, a series of steps is intentionally left out.Slippery SlopeThis is what a slippery slope can look like.Event A happens (or may happen)Therefore, event Z will inevitably happenSlippery Slope exampletherefore the districts will eventually monitor all student Internet activity. Why is this an example of a slippery slope?ClaimSupporting evidenceSlippery Slope