英美文化概览题

1、1.Rationlismmythology rationalismThales (642-550 B.C.) & Anaximander (611-547 B.C.)Pythagoras (570-500 B.C.): numbers; Pythagorean TheoryHeraclitus (535-475 B.C.): change; A person cannot step into the same river twice.Parmenides (515-440 B.C.): facade of changeDemocritus (460-390 B.C.): the atomic

2、theoryRationalism, the belief that reason is the primary source of knowledge, was firmly entrenched. Human beings could understand Nature through reasoning, because Nature followed rational laws.2Mliddle EnglishMiddle English describes dialects of English in the history of the English language betwe

3、en the High and Late Middle Ages, or roughly during the three centuries between the late 12th and the late 15th century.Middle English developed out of Late Old English in Norman England (10661154) and was spoken throughout the Plantagenet era (11541485). The Middle English period ended at about 147

4、0, when the Chancery Standard, a form of London-based English, began to become widespread, a process aided by the introduction of the printing press to England by William Caxton in the late 1470s. By that time the variant of the Northumbrian dialect (prevalent in Northern England) spoken in southeas

5、t Scotland was developing into the Scots language. The language of England as used after 1470 and up to 1650 is known as Early Modern English.Unlike Old English, which tended largely to adopt Late West Saxon scribal conventions in the period immediately before the Norman conquest of England, written

6、 Middle English displays a wide variety of scribal (and presumably dialectal) forms. This diversity suggests the gradual end of the role of Wessex as a focal point and trend-setter for writers and scribes, the emergence of more distinct local scribal styles and written dialects, and a general patter

7、n of transition of activity over the centuries that followed, as Northumbria, East Anglia, and London successively emerged as major centres of English literature, each with their own particular interests.Middle English literature of the 12th and 13th centuries is comparatively rare, as written commu

8、nication was usually in Anglo-Norman or in Medieval Latin. Middle English became much more important as a literary language during the 14th century, with poets such as Chaucer and Langland.3. Standard EnglishStandard English (often shortened to S.E. within linguistic circles) refers to whatever form

9、 of the English language is accepted as a national norm in an Anglophone country.1 It encompasses grammar, vocabulary, and spelling. In the British Isles, particularly in England and Wales, it is often associated with: the Received Pronunciation accent (there are several variants of the accent) and

10、UKSE (United Kingdom Standard English), which refers to grammar and vocabulary. In Scotland the standard is Scottish Standard English. In the United States it is generally associated with the General American accent and in Australia with General Australian.2 Unlike the case of other standard languag

11、es, however, theres no official or central regulating body defining Standard English.4Constitutional Monarchy After William landed in England with an army in November,1688, James fled to France. A new Parliament declared the throne vacant and appointed Wiliam and Mary joint sovereigns in 1689. This

12、was called the Glorious Revolution. In1689, Parliament passed the Bill of Rights, which limited the power of the moarch and guaranteed the authority of Parliament. William and Mary signed the bill into law. The Glorious Revolution was complete, in which Parliament succedded in removing a ruling mona

13、rch they did not like and establishing a system known as constitutional monarchy. From that time, the King ruled with an authority circumscribed by Parliament.5The constitution of the UK1. statutory law the Magna Carta (1215) the Petition of Rights (1628) the Bill of Rights (1689) the Reform Act (18

14、32) the Act of Settlement (1701)2. common law3. Conventions6 The UK parliament the law-making body of Britain;one of the oldest representativeassemblies in the world; Strictly speaking, the parliament consists of:the Crownthe House of Lordsthe House of Commons7.The queenthe Crownprimarily to symboli

15、ze the tradition and unity of the British state. The Queen is legally head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature, head of the judiciary, commander in chief of the armed forces and “supreme governor”.A less well known role of the Queen, which is nevertheless very important to British

16、politics, is that of a confidante to the Prime Minister. Her long experience and her politically neutrality make her a good source of informed observation on the day to day problems of governance.8.the House of LordsIt consists of the Lords Spiritual, who are the Archbishops and most prominent bisho

17、ps of Church of England;Lords Temporal, which refers to everyone else. Hereditary peers: inherit the seats from their forefather; life peers: appointed by the sovereign, at the suggestion of the Prime Minister.The roles of the House of Lords(1)receiving no salary though can enjoy a small allowance f

18、or each day of attendance(2)are not elected(3)few attending the parliament sittings(4)representing their own interestThe main legislative function of the House of Lords is to examine and revise bills from the House of Commons. It also acts in a legal capacity as the highest court of appeal.In recent

19、 years, the House of Lords has undergone a process of reform to make it more democratic and representative. Currently only 92 hereditary peers are allowed to remain in the House of Lords. The next phase of reform would be to remove the remaining hereditary peers and establish a fully elected chamber

20、.9.the House of CommonsIt consists of about 650 Members of Parliament (MPS) elected by the people to represent them.Most MPS belong to political parties-Labor, the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats are the major ones. The Prime Minister is of course the leader of the political party which wins

21、 the most seats in a general election.The roles of the House of Commons(1)receiving salary (2)are elected(3)representing the public interest of the electorate(4)most MPs belong to a particular party 10.Gcse The General Certificate of Secondary Education(GCSE)（普通中等教育证书）An academic qualification gener

22、ally taken in a number of subjects by students aged 1416 in secondary education in England, Wales and Northern IrelandCertifying that the students have achieved the standard expected after 11 years of compulsory education11 .sixth form“sixth form” (2 years)(English education system) the final two ye

23、ars of secondary schooling during which students are about sixteen to eighteen years of age.A-levels (General Certificate of EducationAdvanced)for universities admittancesGNVQs (General National Vocational Qualifications)for vocational training12. A_Levels examsThe A-level, or “Advanced Level” is a

24、grade of education that is offered by educational institutions such as schools and colleges and is an accepted form of qualification.A-levels are generally a two-year course, with AS levels being obtained within the first year.A-levels are usually taken after successful completion of a previous leve

25、l of course, such as GCSEs.13. Public school ， grammar school in Britian p7214. Oxbridge Oxford University and Cambridge University are sometimes referred to collectively as Oxbridge. Bodleian Library of Oxford Universitythe main research library of the University of Oxfordone of the oldest librarie

26、s in Europe, and in Britain is second in size only to the British Library with over 11 million items. Known to Oxford scholars as Bodley or simply the BodCambridges contributions to ScienceMany of the most important scientific discoveries and revolutions were made by Cambridge alumni 校友. These inclu

27、de: Understanding the scientific method, by Francis Bacon The laws of motion, by Sir Isaac Newton The discovery of the electron, by J. J. Thomson The unification of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell The discovery of hydrogen, by Henry Cavendish Evolution by natural selection, by Charles Darwi

28、n The Turing machine, the basis of modern computers, by Alan Turing The structure of DNA, by Francis Crick and James D. Watson 15.HeptarchyHeptarchyKent (Jutes); Essex, Sussex, Wessex (Saxons); East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria (Angles)16. Witan Witan was originally incepted by the United Kingdom Sco

29、ut and Guide Clubs and Rovers Crews but was soon taken up by SSAGO with its creation in 1967. The first 2 events were organised by the Oxford University Scout and Guide Group at Gilwell Park in 1959 and 1961 and ran regularly almost every alternative year from then on. Definition of WITAN: members o

30、f the witenagemot Origin of WITANOld English, plural of wita sage, adviser; akin to Old High German wizzo sage, Old English witan to knowFirst Known Use: 1807witan(Concise Encyclopedia)Council of the Anglo-Saxon kings in medieval England. Usually attended by high-ranking nobles and bishops, the wita

31、n was expected to advise the king on all matters on which he chose to ask its opinion. It attested his grants of land to churches or laymen, consented to his issue of new laws, and helped him deal with rebels and disaffected subjects. Its composition and time of meeting were determined at the kings

32、pleasure.17. Roman Britian(55 B.C. - 410 A.D.)1. British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion.2. Julius Caesar (100 B.C. - 44 B.C.)first invasion in 55 B.C. - a failuresecond invasion in 54 B.C. - a military success, but did not lead to Roman occupation3. the Emperor Claudiusordered the f

33、ull Roman conquest of Britain in 43 A.D.4.For nearly 400 years Britain was under the Roman occupation. But it was never a total occupation for two reasons. First, some parts of the country resisted. Second, Roman troops were often withdrawn from Britain to fight in other parts of the Roman Empire.Ha

34、drians Wall (118.3 km) 5.In 410, Germanic barbarians attacked Rome, forcing all Roman troops to leave Britain in order to defend their own nation, and thus ending the Roman occupation of the island.6. Roman Britain-A Temporary CivilizationUnlike other early invaders, the Romans came as imperialists

35、to exploit and govern by right of being the superior civilization. walled towns linked by military roadshowever, impact was limited18. Norman conquest（1066-1381）As its name suggests, the Norman culture began when Vikings from the north settled in northern France. Over time, these Vikings were assimi

36、lated into France, and by the time of Edward the Confessor, the Normans spoke French and adopted the French method of government known as the feudal system.Under feudal government, all classes of society had fixed relationships with each other. At the top was the Duke, who gave lands to Barons, in r

37、eturn for military service. At the bottom were the peasants, some of whom were serfs or slaves bound to the land and its owner. These relationships were determined by birth; a son succeeded his father.1.Harold, Earl of Wessex (1066) selected by Witan as king after Edwards deathchallenged by Harald H

38、ardarda, King of Norway, and William, Duke of Normandydefeated the Norwegians; defeated by William near Hastings2. William the Conqueror (1066-1087)On December 25, 1066, William was crowned William at Westminster Abbey in London.Saxon risings and Williams brutal actiondevastated hundreds of square m

39、iles of the countryside and destroyed much of the Roman city of Yorkbuilt a string of defence castles to ensure his military control of the whole country3. ImpactThe Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best known event in English history. William the Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and

40、gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule by a strong Normen government. So the feudal system was completely established in England. Relations with the Continent were opened, and civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture

41、 were introduced. The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts.19. The industrial revolution1During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, great changes took place:human power was rapidly being supplanted by machine power;the d

42、omestic system was being replaced by the factory system;a substantial part of the population was moving to industrial towns and citiesEngland was well on its way toward becoming a major workshop of the world.These great industrial changes are commonly called The Industrial Revolution. This term must

43、 not be interpreted too literally. There was no revolutionary overturning of established practices. Instead, changes came slowly. Old ideas were modified, not swept away, and new ideas gradually took shape.Several factors caused these changes to occur earlier in England than on the European Continen

44、t.1. overseas expansion by England had opened markets that were ready to absorb more manufactured goods.2. England had vast deposits of coal and iron both essential in manufacturing machinery.3. the English inventors outstripped those of other countries. So pressing was the demand for certain types

45、of machines that the British Royal Society of Arts offered money to those who would invent them. The result was new machine after new machine, until they dominated manufacturing.The heart of the Industrial Revolution was the invention of machinery which could be applied to manufacturing processes. T

46、he Industrial Revolution began in the textile industry and was marked by a series of important inventions: Spinning Jenny, the water frame, the spinning mule, the power loom and the steam engine. These inventions completed the mechanization of the textile industry and prepared the way for a new syst

47、em of production: large-scale industry.With these developments came a need for a cheap means of transportation. Entrepreneurs invested in digging canals to ship goods to market. In 1814, the steam locomotive was invented. The first railway was completed in 1825. By 1870, Britian had about 21,700 kil

48、ometers of railroad. Meanwhile, it had also built a large merchant fleet, which carried British-manufactured goods to all parts of the world.By the middle of the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution was accomplished in Britain. It changed Britain in many ways.1. Its industrial productivity increa

49、sed dramatically. Britian became the most advanced industrial county in the world.2. It underwent a process of mass urbanization. Many new cities sprang up, such as Manchester, Birmingham.3. It created changes in the social class structure. The capitalist class became the most important force in the

50、 country, meanwhile the proletariat came into being.20. The major cause of Britians relative economic decline in the post war period1Two world wars -great economic loss2. the era of the british empire was over- decolonization(losses of raw materials and market)3. Military expense (until the process

51、of decolonization completed in the 1960s )and substantial financial contributions to NATO and UN security council4. Britian failed to invest in industry after world war 2 (Germany and Japan)21. Thatcher (撒切尔)and Thatcherism（撒切尔主义）The election of 1979 returned the Conservative Party to the power and

52、Thatcher became the first woman prime minister in Britain. Her policies are popularly referred to as Thatcherism.The main contents of her policies included the return to private ownership of state-owned industries, the use of monetarist policies to control inflation, the weakening of trade unions, t

53、he strengthening of the role of market forces in the economy, and an emphasis on law and order. To some extent her program was successful and she led one of the most remarkable periods in the British economy.22. Articles of confederation(联邦条款) After the War of Independence was won, the new nation of

54、 the United States was organized under the agreement of the Articles of federation with a weak national government called the Congress. Each state had its own government, made its own laws and handled its internal affairs. The states did not cooperate with the Congress and with each other. The Congr

55、ess had no power to force any state to contribute money to the national government and the Congress could not tax any citizen either. As a result, the Articles of Confederation failed.23. The constitutionThe Articles of Confederation failed. The Congress decided to hold a constitutional convention t

56、o revise the Articles of Confederation. The delegates from 12 states (Rhode Island refused to participated) gathered in Philadelphia in 1787 and end up in writing a new constitution and set a federal system with a strong central government. The Constitution provided that an election of the president

57、 would be called for, federal laws would be made only by a Congress made up of the House of Representatives and the Senate and a Supreme Court would be set up. This new Constitution was finally approved by the majority of the citizens in over 9 of the 13 states and was officially put into effect in

58、1789.* A federal system is one in which power is shared between a central authority and its constituent parts, with some rights reserved to each. * to protect citizens from tyranny, a “Bill of Rights” was added to the Constitution in 1791.The constitution divides the powers of the government the three branchesthe Executive, headed by the president; the Legislative, including both houses of Congress (the Se